Reading and Vocabulary Development.

Developing a rich listening, speaking, reading, and writing vocabulary is important in all curriculum areas. In the reading curriculum, in particular, a quality vocabulary needs to be achieved by each pupil. One reason that pupils do not read well is that they do not possess a functional vocabulary for reading. Enriching and developing pupil vocabularies should be a major goal in each academic discipline.

The following are reasons for teachers guiding learners to possess a rich vocabulary: (1) subject matter and ideas are expressed with more clarity and accuracy, (2) proficiency in the work place might well depend upon individuals having a quality vocabulary, (3) individuals seemingly have more prestige if their listening, speaking, reading, and writing vocabularies are adequately developed, (4) greater enjoyment of reading is in the offing if a person has a rich functional vocabulary (5) vocabulary development is salient in problem solving. A person with a rich vocabulary should have a better opportunity to develop his/her personality, (6) conversations carried on with other persons require a rich vocabulary. There needs to be an appropriate number of words used that carry intended meanings, (7) variety in selecting words to convey accurate meanings is necessary in speaking and writing, the outgoes of the language arts, and (8) use of diverse terms and concepts in speaking and writing adds variety to quality communication. Vocabulary development becomes a tool to take in, such as listening and reading, as well as provide communication to others within the framework of speaking and writing.

The reading teacher needs to select quality objectives for pupils to achieve in the area of vocabulary development. These objectives need to emphasize what is relevant and functional. Certainly, pupils should be able to use what has been learned. Learning should not be for its own sake but rather be for personal use and application in society. Important vocabulary terms should be acquired by pupils. Adequate time must be given in choosing what pupils need to learn. This cannot be hurried, because vocabulary development emphasizes that which must be learned in depth, not survey approaches. Objectives pertaining to vocabulary development need to stress securing the interests of pupils in ongoing lessons and units of study. Ways of developing and maintaining pupil interest in learning must be emphasized. If pupils do not reveal interest in learning, they will not achieve as optimally as possible.

There needs to be objectives reflecting pupils working collaboratively. Within the cooperative endeavor, pupils listen to others and use oral communication with opportunities to achieve in vocabulary development. There are definite social goals here in that pupils need to learn to work harmoniously with others. And yet pupils also should be able to work by the self and achieve on an individual basis.

Vocabulary development emphasizes that pupils seek purpose in learning. Purposeful learning in vocabulary development means that pupils perceive reasons for achieving. I think that one cannot stress too strongly that vocabulary development for pupils should have as a goal that purpose is involved in learning. Purposeful learnings have as a goal that pupils perceive the values inherent in vocabulary activities. If these values are lacking, the teacher should stress other vocabulary development lessons for learners.

Objectives to emphasize the importance of meaningful learnings. If meaning is lacking, the chances are pupils will memorize terms and concepts for testing purposes only or largely. Meaning stresses the importance of pupils understanding that which has been learned. Use cannot be made of a new vocabulary term unless understanding of prerequisites in vocabulary terms is prevalent. With prerequisites, background information is needed to attach meaning to vocabulary terms being studied.

Objectives in vocabulary development for pupils should emphasize pupils experiencing the concept of providing for individual differences. There are pupils who learn more rapidly that others while some pupils take more time to learn the same content/skills as written in the statement of objectives. Each pupil regardless of socioeconomic level must be accepted as a human being and taught in a manner which provides for all pupils.

Learning Opportunities to Achieve Objectives

To achieve vital objectives in vocabulary development, the teacher needs to select worthwhile activities for pupils. These activities need to be selected carefully so that each pupil's achievement is as optimal as possible. Pupils should not be labeled as being fast, average, or slow learners. Rather all should be accepted and develop feelings of belonging in the group (Ediger, 1997).

To achieve objectives in vocabulary development, I recommend selected learning opportunities that student teachers and cooperating teachers whom I supervise have used successfully.

Each day the teacher should read aloud to pupils during story time. The book chosen should interest pupils and keep their attention. Voice inflection using proper stress, pitch, and juncture should be in the offing when the teacher reads during story time. Words should be pronounced clearly and accurately. The teacher should have good audience contact with listeners. For young children, it is especially good to show the book's illustrations to pupils as the library book is being read. Throughout the story time activity, pupils should understand an increased number of facts, concepts, and generalizations. Knowledge received provides background information for more complex ideas that should be forthcoming. Knowledge is sequential and cumulative for learners. A love for learning by pupils might be a further end result when the teacher reads orally to pupils during story time.

A second activity stressed pupils discussing ideas obtained from listening to the library book read or from personal reading pursued.

Through discussion participation, pupils should learn effective ways of working within a small or large group setting. Pupils should learn to be polite, accepting, and cooperative in the discussion learning activity. Being a good listener, valuing the thinking of others, and actively participating in a polite manner should help a discussion to move forward in quality. Thus the processes of being a member of a discussion group need to be emphasized continuously.

Then too, during the discussion, pupils should achieve quality ideas, facts, concepts, and generalizations. Learners need to stay on the topic to achieve subject matter learnings during a discussion. Straying from the topic at hand merely wastes time. Ideas need to circulate within the group so that all have opportunities to participate. Active participation by each pupil should be an objective. Use of language during a discussion helps pupils to achieve more optimally in speaking. This translates content acquired to be used to comprehend subject matter in reading. The content and vocabulary gained by the learner might then provide background information for reading. Generally, what pupils are able to discuss represents meaningful subject matter. The subject matter might then provide the necessary knowledge, prior to reading, which helps pupils to understand increasingly complex vocabulary read.

Third, it is good to have one or more listening centers in the classroom. There are excellent cassette tapes related to an ongoing lesson or unit of study. Information gleaned from listening to a tape may guide pupils to answer related questions contained at the center. The information might well assist pupils to use this as background content to understand better what will be read from a basal or library book.

At the listening center, pupils may choose sequential tapes to listen to, for a variety of purposes. These purposes might well be the following in listening for:

1. facts, concepts, and generalizations.

2. information to use in problem solving.

3. critical thinking purposes such as separating facts from opinions, accurate from inaccurate information, and fantasy from reality.

4. opportunities to do creative thinking in the reading curriculum such as coming up with novel, unique ideas, and originality in thought.

5. obtaining directions in reaching a certain place.

6. securing a main idea when relating facts, concepts, and generalizations.

7. the setting of a story.

8. securing ideas pertaining to characterization within a writing.

9. determining the plot of a selection in reading.

10. understanding the theme of the speaker.

Fourth, the reading teacher needs to have one or more speaking centers in the classroom, Listening (discussed above) and speaking are interrelated. I will mention some activities here that emphasize speaking more than listening.

1. giving oral reports on library books read, related directly to the ongoing lesson and unit of study being taught. The oral report should follow good sequence in content presented. The ideas need to be presented clearly and at an appropriate rate of speed so that listening comprehension is optimal. The pupil presenting the oral book report needs to have the content well in mind. An outline, in proper form, should be used to convey the contents therein. The presenter of the book report should have good eye contact with the audience. Reading for enjoyment and for solving problems are two purposes in having pupils become proficient in reading.

2. having pupils videotape their individual oral book reports given to the class. Here, pupils individually or with a peer may appraise the quality of the oral report given. Standards used to appraise may be the same as under number two above. The contents of the videotape may also evaluate distracting mannerisms of the speaker such as rubbing the nose excessively. It is good to have the presenter appraise the quality of his/her own oral report in terms of quality standards. Vocabulary terms are developed from the reading of library books as well as from the oral presentations given of library book content.

3. interacting with audiovisual materials to locate information for problem solving. The AV materials may include videotapes, CD ROMS, films, filmstrips, illustrations, snapshots enlarged for class viewing with an opaque projector, internet and worldwide web, as well as computer packages, among others. With pupil interaction with AV materials of instruction, there are many opportunities to gather information for a committee project such as developing a mural. The mural must be planned cooperatively with all participating and no one dominating collaborative endeavors. After the planning, the implementation of the plan comes in sequence. With implementation, each pupil on the committee does his/her fair share of the work. The project represents the best work each pupil can do. Thus, neatness, accuracy, and attractiveness become key ingredients when appraising the mural. Art work correlates well with reading. Through art, pupils may reveal what has been learned. Vocabulary development is definitely inherent in planning, implementing, and appraising the project.

Fifth, ample emphasis should be placed upon pupils doing much writing. With writing, pupils read their own written products as well as read those of other learners whose works are posted on the bulletin board. Reading and writing cannot be separated from each other but are complimentary. There are numerous forms of written work that pupils may engage in. Journal entries should be written freely to indicate what had been learned in a given lesson. Diary entries may be written each day and should be dated. These diary entries portray what pupils learned for a day. As pupils write these diary entries, they read written content. In this way pupils also review that which was learned previously from reading and rereading diary entries covering subject matter learned. Additional written work may include the following:

1. logs--logs summarize what was contained in diary entries for one week. Clarity of ideas and proper sequence is important in writing logs.

2. book reports--these relate to an ongoing lesson or unit of study. Meaningful content in an appropriate order must be inherent in the written work.

3. outlines--here proper style needs to be used such as Roman numerals to indicate main ideas, capitol letters in sequence to indicate subordinate ideas and Hindu-Arabic numerals to reveal details. The subordinate ideas relate directly to the main ideas whereas the details tell more about the subordinate content. Outlines are very helpful to use in giving a report on a certain topic to classmates. Thus, the oral report will have improved sequence of ideas presented as well as if the pupil forgets certain ideas, the outline is there to aid memory in oral communication.

4. poems--poetry written in any lesson should relate to an ongoing lesson or unit of study. There are opportunities for pupils to write poetry in each curriculum area. There can be unrhymed verse written such as free verse. Or poetry written may contain rhyme such as couplets, triplets, quatrains, and limericks. Poetry written may also include a selected number of syllables per line such as haiku (5-7-5 syllables for each of three sequential lines). Tanka contains 5-7-5-7-7 syllables per line for each of five lines.

It is quite obvious that there are many writing opportunities for pupils pertaining to each curriculum area and within each lesson taught. Pupils engage in much reading, rereading, and proofreading when engaging in writing experiences. Vocabulary development opportunities are numerous.

Sixth, pupils may engage in developing a dictionary. Even though there are pictured dictionaries, grade level dictionaries, unabridged dictionaries, as well as glossaries in basal textbooks, it can be highly profitable for pupils individually or in committees to develop their very own dictionaries. Why? Perhaps, there are many new words brought into the lesson or unit of study by the teacher. It is good to alphabetize these new words and write meaningful definitions for each. Dictionary entries need to be functional so that they may be used as needed to obtain contextual information. It is good for pupils to be able to alphabetize and reread the necessary entries.

Seventh, pupils and the teacher should engage in story telling activities. Content for the story needs to follow a certain order to be meaningful to the listener. Thus, sequence of ideas in story telling is important A clear speaking voice with proper enunciation helps the oral presentation to be more effective. Having a pleasant speaking voice with quality eye contact with listeners assists in the communication of the story. When pupils hear stories told, especially pertaining to a specific library book at an interest center, interest in reading that book tends to be generated. Background experiences are also developed within pupils for reading additional books in ongoing lessons and units of study.

When engaging in story telling, pupils should be developing poise and gracefulness in the process. Pupils need ample opportunities to appear before others in informal and formal experiences. No doubt, skills and attitudes are being developed here that will have lifelong values and worth. Shy pupils, in particular, need to appear before others in a variety of roles so that feelings of poise and worth are inherent. The confidence that can come from these experiences might well have carry over values to other endeavors.

Ninth, reading cooperatively in small groups can provide much enjoyment and interest in literature. Being with others is a favorite leaning style of selected individuals. They prefer to work together rather than working on an individual basis Pupils too receive practice in reading. Cumulative practice should make for increased knowledge, skills, and attitudes toward reading. With cooperative reading, three or four pupils may take turns reading a library book. If one copy only of a library book is available, sequential pupils may read aloud as the others in the group listen carefully to the contents. The contents may also be tape recorded so that individual pupils may reread the library book. Then, if a word is not known in identification, the recorded voice provides the needed information.

If multiple copies of a library book are available, the small group of three or four pupils may follow along in their own library book as the sequential oral reading takes place. Thus, one person reads aloud as the others in the committee follow along in their own library book. Shared reading experiences has many intrinsic rewards for pupils. There should also be ample opportunities for those who like individual endeavors to read a book by themselves.

Tenth, there should be many objects and items at an interest center whereby pupils may discuss each. I have observed many aquariums and terrariums in classrooms which provide stimulating situations for pupils to provide content for an experience chart. Sometimes a teacher has numerous potted plants in the classroom which may provide pupils an opportunity for informal conversation and also ideas for an experience chart. A rich learning environment helps pupils to think about the contents. The resulting ideas assist pupils to use oral language, engage in written work, read about similar situations or subject matter, and/or listen to the thinking of others. A stimulating environment needs to be in the offing so that pupils have purposes for engaging in reading and language arts activities. For example, on the early primary grade level, pupils may observe and experience objects on an interest center. They may then provide content to the teacher who in return prints in neat manuscript letters what pupils have said and discussed. After the writeup of the contents, the pupils with the teacher pointing to words and phrases being read may comprehend the ideas presented in this experience chart. This approach is sound in that:

1. pupils have the background information to begin with by looking at and discussing objects at the center.

2. pupils present ideas for the experience chart. Learners then have chances to speak and to listen to others. What is said should be meaningful since it is based upon personal experiences of pupils. When the teacher points to words and phrases, he/she together with pupils read orally content from the experience chart. Here, young learners should be developing an enriched vocabulary with a larger basic sight vocabulary. These sight words become the building blocks for future reading activities. The contents of the experience chart may be reread as pupils desire. Many pupils like to read over again what has been read previously. Practice here assists pupils to retain basic sight words better than would otherwise be the case.

Eleventh, a quality spelling program should help pupils to become better readers. There are numerous places where spelling words in vocabulary development may come from, for pupils to master. Individualized spelling stresses learners mastering a reasonable number of words that come from what was missed in spelling words correctly from every day writing occurrences. The teacher needs to decide here how many of these misspelled words can be spelled correctly within a week or whatever the designated time would be. Words may also come from a quality basal spelling text, new words in a lesson for pupils to master as listed in the basal reader, words that research states are important for pupils to master in spelling such as the Dolch list (1955). As pupils practice the correct spelling of words, they are becoming involved in vocabulary development and reading. Learners need to see print as often as feasible in order to become good readers. Spelling need not be dull and dry with memorization of words. Rather pupils should experience interesting activities by:

1. using these words in writing letters to parents and friends, developing a related cross word puzzle, and playing games with peers.

2. working with peers in learning to spell words correctly. Cooperative learning may be a preferred style of learning for selected pupils.

3. pantomiming the meaning of selected words. This could involve the playing of charades whereby a pupil chooses a word for spelling at random from a box, pantomimes it, and then asks others in the classroom to identify which word is involved.

4. dramatizing the spelling word. A pupils may select a spelling word at random and use puppets or marionettes to dramatize its meaning. Classmates may guess what the spelling word is. Creative dramatics may also be used. Here, the pupil chooses a word at random from a box and uses words and actions to indicate which word is being focused upon. The word wanted is not mentioned orally in the creative dramatics presentation. Several pupils could also be involved in this activity.

How much of the spelling curriculum should stress inductive and how much deductive thinking? I would suggest a balance between the two approaches. Thus, when using a spelling textbook in teaching, the teacher assigns words for pupils to master. This is a deductive approach. Furthermore, the teacher, among other experiences, has pupils learn a strategy for learning to spell these words such as:

1. looking at the spelling word carefully.

2. saying the word accurately.

3. saying clearly the parts of the word, such as pronouncing each syllable carefully and accurately.

4. writing the new word without looking at it.

5. comparing the written word with that contained in the basal spelling textbook.

The teacher here is emphasizing a deductive method of spelling words correctly. Why is this a deductive approach? The teacher has determined what and how pupils are to learn.

An inductive approach stresses pupils being involved in curriculum development such as, pupils seeing how many homonyms or synonyms to find in a homonym/synonym hunt. Pupils might have suggested this activity when studying a unit containing a few of these words. Also, the teacher may have suggested the activity and pupils individually or on teams volunteered to see how many could be found. The sky is the limit in the number to be located. Perhaps, the teacher needs to have a balance between deductive versus inductive approaches in having pupils learn in the area of spelling. If a basal spelling text is used and there are a few rhyming words in a weekly list, pupils could locate additional ones to go along with those given in an inductive approach in learning. With a deductive procedure, the teacher may challenge gifted learners with additional words to master in spelling in addition to those listed in the text. By studying the correct spelling of words, pupils should increase their skills in vocabulary development and reading.

Twelfth, I recommend pupils learn to spell relevant words contained in computer packages. There are drill and practice activities, tutorial, gaming and games, simulation, and diagnostic/remedial packages. Reading teachers need to evaluate each package carefully to determine which relevant words in spelling pupils should master. Use should be made of spelling words for retention to take place. Spelling words may be used to write:

1. friendly and business letters.

2. notices, announcements, plays, reports, poems, and stories.

3. names and addresses.

4. birthday greetings and holiday messages.

5. notes of sympathy and condolence.

As pupils participate in these writing activities, they need to proofread content. The skills of reading are very much in evidence then. The spelling curriculum should be based upon words that pupils need to learn to spell. The needs of pupils are very important when developing any curriculum area. Beyond the goals of learning to spell words correctly are skills in reading for a variety of purposes that should be upper most in the minds of learners. Narrative, expository, and creative writing should all be emphasized in ongoing lessons and units of study. Vocabulary development is an essential part in any listening, speaking, reading, and writing activity. It behooves the teacher to guide pupils to achieve as optimally as possible in vocabulary development and its related component--reading.

What then should be guidelines to use in assisting pupils in vocabulary development?

1. Word study should be integrated with prior knowledge and with learning in the content areas.

2. Word study should involve intensive "depth" study of some words, involving many exposures to the words in meaningful contexts, both in and out of texts.

3. Teachers should engage in direct teaching or modeling, talking explicitly about word meaning and structure.

4. Students should be actively involved in instruction; an important side effect of this involvement is the development of favorable attitudes toward words and word learning.

5. Students should be taught strategies for learning new words independently.

6. Teachers should introduce words in meaning "families" so that semantic and structural relationships among the words are made explicit.

These principles are more applicable at the intermediate grade levels and beyond, when student's cognitive development has advanced to the point where they can explicitly deal with increasing conceptual abstraction. Nonetheless, you will see aspects of these principles at work in word study at the primary grade level as well. (Templeton, 1997).

Conclusion

There are numerous opportunities for pupils to engage in vocabulary development. Each curriculum area provides these learning activities to increase proficiency in the use of vocabulary terms. The teacher needs to establish objectives, learning opportunities, and evaluation procedures within individual academic areas to guide pupils in acquiring a rich listening, speaking, reading, and writing ,vocabulary. The objectives of instruction need to stress relevant, functional words for pupils to master. Learning opportunities in vocabulary development should assist pupils to achieve the stated objectives. These activities need to be interesting, purposeful, and meaningful. Evaluation procedures to appraise learner performance in achieving objectives need to be valid, reliable, varied, and encourage further learning.

I evaluate Ph.D. theses for Sri Ramakrishna Mission Vidayala College of Education in India. The author of one study listed the following sequence in vocabulary development (Ayyappan, 1997, p. 8.72).

The confrontation phase emphasizes the teacher presenting relevant data pertaining to the concept as well as important related definitions. Students then generate questions pertaining to the concept or vocabulary term. Phase two is the concept information phase. Here, students compare the attributes given and relate them to form the concept of vocabulary terms taught. Learners discuss with other pupils the distinguishing features to identify the concept.

In phase three, the teacher obtains responses from pupils in a stimulating discussion. Pupils then identify similarities and differences from the information presented. Pupil hypotheses are then appraised involving the tentative concept. In phase four stressing the concept development phase, the teacher presents related tasks for pupils to complete pertaining to the concept stressed. Probing of pupil knowledge pertaining to a concept is important. References are also made to the textbook while discussing the concept.

The major classroom interactions are:

1. Teacher interaction/introduction/information

2. Activities for pupils include media interaction, consulting text, and peer interaction whereas feedback includes evaluation and teacher interaction (Ayyappan 1997, 8.73).

One of the finest procedures in vocabulary development, I have observed in supervising student teachers and cooperating teachers, was the Hilda Taba inductive method used with a class of sixth graders in Central Elementary School, Centerville, Iowa, October 15, 1988. Here, the two teachers had pupils view a filmstrip on Life on a Manor. The teachers, after having pupils view the contents in the filmstrip, asked:

1. Tell us in a single word or phrase what you learned from watching the filmstrip. The following responses were given by pupils; castles, moats, draw bridge, the mill for grinding grain, oxen pulling a plow, peasants cutting wheat by hand, peasant cottages, the three field approach in farming, fallow, noblemen, tournaments, page, knight, guilds, apprentice, master, and wars.

2. How would you combine or join together the concepts you mentioned for number one above? Here, a variety of answers were given in and for an open ended question. One grouping of vocabulary terms given by pupils was the following: oxen pulling a plow, peasants cutting wheat by hand, the three field approach in farming, and fallow were joined together.

3. What name would you give to the joined together vocabulary terms? The answer provided was "cultivating the soil." The name given was evaluated by the total class.

References

Ayyappan, R. (1997). Concept Development in Electronics at Higher Secondary Level. Colmbatore, India: Sharathlar University, Ph.D. thesis.

Ediger, Marlow (1998). Teaching Reading Successfully in the Elementary School. Kirksvile, Missouri: Simpson Publishing Company, 1-14.

Ediger, Marlow (1997). Teaching Reading and the Language Arts in the Elementary School. Kirksville, Missouri: Simpson Publishing Company, 39046.

Templeton, Shane (1997). Teaching the Integrated Language All & Second Edition. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 287-288.

RELATED ARTICLE: Call for Manuscripts/Special Issue Announcement

Ethics & Behavior is planning a special issue on the topic of Academic Dishonesty. Data-based and theoretical papers on causes, incidence, contexts, types, and characteristics of academic dishonesty are welcomed. Data-based papers (including , well-designed case studies) on the resistance to student/faculty/administrative involvement in promoting academic integrity and dealing with academic dishonesty and reports of effective deterrents and prevention programs are also interest. To be considered for inclusion in the special issue, manuscripts should reach the Editors by December 15.

The issue guest editors are:

Patricia Keith-Spiegel, Ph.D. and Bernard E. Whitley, Jr., Ph.D. Department of Psychological Science Ball State University Munice IN 47106

Telephone either editor at: 765-285-1620 FAX: [phone] email P. Keith-Spiegel at [e-mail] Bernard E. Whitley, Jr. at [e-mail]

Dr. Marlow Ediger, Professor of Education, Truman State University.

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Dr. Marlow Ediger, Route 2, Box 38, Kirksville, Missouri 63501.