Raising Resilience in Classrooms and Homes.

In the 1960s, those concerned with the welfare of America's children "at risk" focused on children's deficiencies. What became known as the deficit model set the standard for educating children born in difficult circumstances. Recent research is helping those who work with children, as well as their families, move away from this deficit model toward one that focuses, instead, on children's strengths. The articles reviewed here represent examples of this trend.

CHILDHOOD RESILIENCE: Review and Critique of Literature. Howard, S., & Dryden, J. Oxford Review of Education, 1999, 25(3), 307-327. As the topic of resilience gains increased attention, the number of research studies addressing this construct has multiplied. A review of the literature found only two articles on the topic between 1989-1992; 14 studies were conducted from 1993-1995. From 1996 onward, a researcher can find 120 citations on resilience.

This article focuses particularly on resilience in childhood and early adolescence. It is a brief review and critique of the most important work in the area. Resilience is generally defined as successful adaptation in the midst of challenging or threatening circumstances. Educators will be most concerned with the findings concerning resilience in educational environments.

Beginning in the 1980s, the research emphasis shifted from psychopathology to one of prevention and intervention. Studies began to report a similar pattern of strengths in children. Despite the high-risk environments in which they lived, some children were developing into "successful" young adults. Researchers began to argue that most children are competent and confident, and that they can flourish even under adverse circumstances--especially if they have the advantage of caring from adults. Positive relationships, rather than specific "atrisk" factors, seemed to have the most important impact.

Only a few schools attempted to use this research in order to provide the protective factors identified as essential for developing resilience: social competence, problem-solving skills, a critical consciousness, autonomy, and a sense of purpose. To bolster children's resilience, teachers and administrators can provide caring relationships, hold high expectations, and offer opportunities for students to participate.

Community leaders, including teachers, parents, and administrators, may find particular relevance in Howard and Dryden's conclusions that the most successful programs demonstrate the importance of the family and the neighborhood/community as rich reservoirs of protective factors. Working alone, schools can contribute significantly to the resilience of children; by working with families, neighborhoods, communities, and agencies, even more can be accomplished.

RESILIENCY: A Key Element for SupportingYouth At-Risk. Krovetz, M. Clearing House, 1999, 73(2), 21-24. This article presents, in abbreviated form, the argument and findings reported in Krovetz's book, Fostering Resilience, published in 1999. Krovetz, a former high school principal, argues that life in schools should be built upon resiliency theory--"the belief in the ability of every person to overcome adversity if important protective factors are present in a person's life" (p. 21). Researchers argue a child is much more likely to develop and maintain a positive, proactive stance toward life if they live in an environment in which people care about that child; have high expectations for the child; offer purposeful, positive support; and value the child.

Resilient children and adolescents consistently have been defined in the psychological literature as having four primary attributes: 1) social competence, including the ability to seek help and elicit positive responses from peers and adults; 2) problem-solving skills and confidence in oneself and one's ability to plan; 3) autonomy, defined as a sense of one's own identity and an ability to act independently; and 4) a sense of purpose and belief in the future. Krovetz maintains that the real power of these personal characteristics is determined by the extent to which the child's environment is supported by key protective factors (a caring environment, positive expectations, and meaningful participation).

Although the author does not directly make reference to his research in California schools, on which this work is based, he draws upon those findings to offer suggestions for schools that wish to foster resilience. In an important point, Krovetz acknowledges that building resilience in students and the adults in their lives does not come from a curriculum or a special program developed with new grant money. Rather, resilience develops as the result of long-term, systemic change that reflects the communities in which children live and work.

Within resilient school communities, Krovetz has observed classes that are heterogeneously grouped, or re-grouped as appropriate. Students in resilient schools usually work independently or in small groups. The resilient school provides a "safety net" for students who may fall behind in academics; common instructional practices are generally used within the school. It may also be critical that teachers who work with these students ask questions that require higher-order thinking skills. Furthermore, when students ask questions of teachers, the teachers respond not with the answer, but rather with a thought-provoking question.

Krovetz also believes that the school must foster resilience in adults by: building collegiality, providing intellectual stimulation, giving teachers a significant voice about the school's daily operations, and increasing job satisfaction. Unfortunately, the article offers few specific suggestions on how to develop a resilient community for adults.

A WRITE WAY: Fostering Resiliency During Transitions. Lewis, R. Journal of Humanistic Counseling Education and Development, 1999, 37(1), 200-212. This article presents the theory and practice that underlie a structured, narrative writing intervention. The intervention, called "A Write Way," oriented and supported students as they strove for an effective transition from middle to high school.

The study used two different structured narrative assignments to foster resiliency in a California public high school in a rapidly growing, rural community with a 30 percent minority population, primarily Hispanic. The first structured lesson was designed to help students create personal learning and success goals that reflected those necessary to graduate from high school. The second lesson was designed to provide student with the opportunity to explore their personal experiences of schooling in a way that would foster caring and support (key protective factors) from the adults in their schools.

The results indicated that the structured narrative approach promotes resilience if children are also supported by relationships with caring adults in the school environment. This work confirms findings from other studies that have linked the value of literacy activities to building resilience in preadolescents (see, for example, Desetta & Wolin, 1998). Some of the most salient aspects of this article for teachers will be found in the appendices that provide the scripts used in the two lessons.

PARENTS' PERCEPTIONS OF THE IMPACT OF A TELEPHONE SUPPORT GROUP INTERVENTION. Ritchie, J. & Stewart, M. Journal of Family Nursing, 2000, 6(1), 25-46. Few parents are in more need of resilience than those living with a child or adolescent with a chronic health problem. The authors hypothesized that a telephone support group would serve as a protective factor for these parents and help to moderate the stress associated with their caregiving responsibilities.

This study tested the impact of a 12-week-long telephone peer support group for parents in a randomized intervention. The researchers invited 178 parents of children, age 7 years or younger, with cystic fibrosis, spina bifida, or diabetes. A total of 137 parents agreed to participate and were randomly assigned to either the intervention or control group. Each support group consisted of parents with children with the same condition and was co-chaired by a parent and a professional. During each session, the participants decided what topic to consider. During each weekly hour-long session, the co-facilitators encouraged parents to describe their experiences, share their strategies for dealing with or changing the situation, and provide alternative strategies.

The support group parents recorded their experiences with and perceptions about the intervention in weekly diaries and in interviews conducted at three points during the six-month period following the intervention. The investigators reviewed the coding and analysis system to ensure accuracy and consistency.

Eighty-five percent of the participants were satisfied with the telephone support group intervention, citing such benefits as increased social support, enhanced coping skills, and an increased sense of confidence; the parents also noticed improvements in their attitudes, their relationships, and their health.

There are implications here for peer support groups among parents of children with a variety of special needs. For instance, it is easy to imagine parents of children with autism helping others in similar situations via a telephone support group. By creating such telephone support groups, schools can help build the communities that enhance resilience among adults who work with children who have special needs. Parents and teachers who live in rural or isolated areas may find such support groups particularly helpful.

THE EFFECTIVENESS OF A CULTURE AND GENDER SPECIFIC INTERVENTION FOR INCREASING RESILIENCY AMONG AFRICAN AMERICAN PREADOLESCENT FEMALES. Belgrave, F. Z., Chase-Vaugh, G., Gray, F., Addison, J. D. & Cherry, V. R. Journal of Black Psychology, 2000, 26(2), 133-148. What can be done to bolster the resilience of African American, preadolescent girls living in environments that might be considered "at-risk"? This study investigated the impact of an intervention that established positive, caring relationships with peers and adult females and included an Africentric focus.

The Africentric worldview is one that expounds on the core African values and traditions that are found among persons of African descent throughout the Diaspora.... The organizing principles of this cultural perspective include spirituality; harmony; collective responsibility; oral tradition; sensitivity to emotional cues; authenticity; balance; concurrent time orientation to past, present, and future; and interpersonal / communal orientation. (p. 134)

Other studies on resilience have demonstrated repeatedly the importance of children having close relationships with caring, supportive adults. The literature also suggests that such relationships are particularly important for preadolescent African American girls.

Study participants were recruited from six elementary and two junior high schools in an East Coast city associated with high levels of poverty, crime, drug activity, teen pregnancy, and unemployment. The girls' ages ranged from 9 to 13 years; most reported living with one parent. Sixty-nine girls were in the intervention group and 115 were in the comparison group.

The girls in the intervention group met once a week for 2 hours, over a period of 4 months, during which time they participated in a variety of activities--creative dance, movement, music, sign language--intended to increase feelings of self-worth, Africentric values, and gender and ethnic identity. The comparison group met an equal number of times and engaged in social activities.

Both groups were evaluated with relation to Africentric values, ethnic identity, and self-concept relative to physical appearance. The intervention group scored significantly higher than the comparison group on positive feelings about self, one's culture, and identification with one's ethnic group.

Although none of these measures specifically address the construct of resilience, other studies have linked these variables to increased resilience. Strong ethnic identity, for example, has been associated with increased achievement and self-esteem among African American youth.

Administrators and teachers working with African American preadolescent girls may find it useful to model strategies that build upon those presented here. Perhaps the authors' most important contribution is to remind us of the role cultural and ethnic identity can play in building resilience.

Reference

Desetta, A., & Wolin, S. (1998). Youth communication: A model program for fostering resilience through the art of writing. Resiliency in Action, 19-23.

Janice H. Patterson is Assistant Professor of Curriculum and Instruction, University of Alabama at Birmingham.