Questions and answers about omega-3 fatty acids for vegans.OMEGA-3 FATTY ACIDS This is a list of omega-3 fatty acids. Common name Lipid name Chemical name α-Linolenic acid (ALA) 18:3 (n-3) octadeca-9,12,15-trienoic acid Stearidonic acid 18:4 (n-3) octadeca-6,9,12,15-tetraenoic acid ARE SHOWING UP IN ALL sorts of products. I took a quick trip down the aisles of a grocery store and a natural foods store and found cereals, soymilk soy·milk n. A milk substitute made from soybeans, often supplemented with vitamins. Noun 1. soymilk - a milk substitute containing soybean flour and water; used in some infant formulas and in making tofu , pasta, snack bars, and even peanut butter proudly proclaiming "contains omega-3 fatty acids." Labels and ads trumpet, "Omega-3 DHA DHA docosahexaenoic acid. DHA, n.pr See acid, docosahexaenoic. is an important brain nutrient," and "Omega-3s may reduce the risk of heart disease." Are these claims real or are they hype? Should vegans be concerned about omega-3 fatty acids? We'll look at these questions and more. WHAT ARE OMEGA-3 FATTY ACIDS? Omega-3 fatty acids are polyunsaturated polyunsaturated /poly·un·sat·u·rat·ed/ (-un-sach´er-at-ed) denoting a chemical compound, particularly a fatty acid, having two or more double or triple bonds in its hydrocarbon chain. fatty acids--building blocks of fats. They differ from other fatty acids because of the number of carbons that they contain and where double bonds are located. The omega-3 fatty acids that are most important nutritionally are alpha-linolenic acid, docosahexaenoic acid docosahexaenoic acid /do·co·sa·hexa·eno·ic ac·id/ (do-ko?sah-hek?sah-e-no´ik) an omega-3, polyunsaturated, 22-carbon fatty acid found almost exclusively in fish and marine animal oils. , and eicosapentaenoic acid eicosapentaenoic acid /ei·co·sa·pen·ta·eno·ic ac·id/ (EPA) (i-ko?sah-pen?tah-e-no´ik) an omega-3, polyunsaturated, 20-carbon fatty acid found almost exclusively in fish and marine animal oils. (DHA and EPA EPA eicosapentaenoic acid. EPA abbr. eicosapentaenoic acid EPA, n.pr See acid, eicosapentaenoic. EPA, n. for short). WHY ARE OMEGA-3 FATTY ACIDS IMPORTANT? Our bodies cannot make alpha-linolenic acid, so it is essential for us to get it from our diet. We can make DHA and EPA from alpha-linolenic acid, although there are some questions about how efficient this process is. Some have suggested that DHA should be considered an essential fatty acid Pregnancy and Breastfeeding A higher intake of omega-3 fatty acids in pregnancy may slightly reduce the risk of having a premature baby. (2) In addition, DHA is essential for normal brain development (3) and appears to play a role in the development of the infant's vision. The amount of DHA in a woman's diet determines the amount of DHA that appears in her breastmilk. Head Disease A number of studies have found that risk of death from heart disease is lower in people with higher intakes of omega-3 fatty acids. Omega-3 fatty acids may also reduce risk of stroke and reduce elevated blood pressure. (4) (For more information on omega-3 fatty acids and heart disease, see the Nutrition Hotline column in Issue 1, 2005, of Vegetarian Journal, which is available at <www.vrg.org/journal/vj2005issue1/ vj2005issuelhotline.htm>. Depression People with clinical depression tend to have lower blood concentrations of omega-3 fatty acids than non-depressed controls. In some studies, one gram of EPA (either with or without DHA) has been used, along with antidepressants Antidepressants Medications prescribed to relieve major depression. Classes of antidepressants include selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (fluoxetine/Prozac, sertraline/Zoloft), tricyclics (amitriptyline/ Elavil), MAOIs (phenelzine/Nardil), and heterocyclics , to treat people with depression. (5) Other Conditions EPA and DHA appear to have some benefits for those with rheumatoid arthritis rheumatoid arthritis Chronic, progressive autoimmune disease causing connective-tissue inflammation, mostly in synovial joints. It can occur at any age, is more common in women, and has an unpredictable course. , including reduction of morning stiffness and pain relief. They may be beneficial in other conditions like Crohn's disease Crohn's disease: see colitis. , Alzheimer's disease Alzheimer's disease (ăls`hī'mərz, ôls–), degenerative disease of nerve cells in the cerebral cortex that leads to atrophy of the brain and senile dementia. , and asthma, but there is not yet enough research in these areas to make recommendations. (6,7) WHICH FOODS CONTAIN DHA AND EPA? Vegetarian diets contain low levels of EPA and DHA, mainly from dairy products and eggs; vegan diets do not normally contain EPA or DHA. The only plant sources of EPA and DHA are microalgae and sea vegetables. Sea vegetables are not a concentrated source of these omega-3 fatty acids and do not provide significant amounts of omega-3 fatty acids for most people. Fish, especially fatty fish, do have DHA and EPA. This is not because the fish produce these fatty acids but because the fish eat microalgae containing DHA and EPA. A vegan DHA made from microalgae has been developed and is being added to some foods and used to make supplements. MUST WE GET DHA AND EPA FROM FOOD, OR CAN OUR BODIES PRODUCE THESE OMEGA-3 FATTY ACIDS? DO VEGANS GET ENOUGH DHA, AND EPA? Our bodies are able to produce some DHA and EPA from alpha-linolenic acid, but we are not very efficient at this production. The rate of conversion is low in women and very low in men. (3) Vegans who do not use DHA supplements or eat DHA-fortified foods must rely on conversion of alpha-linolenic acid to DHA and EPA. Some studies have found that blood levels of EPA and DHA are lower in vegans and vegetarians than in meat-eaters. (8, 9) Whether or not these lower levels have health consequences is not known. The concentration of DHA in breastmilk from vegan women is lower than that in lacto-ovo vegetarians or non-vegetarians. (10, 11) Milk EPA concentration can be increased if dietary alpha-linolenic acid intake increases, but milk DHA content remains unchanged. (12) HOW CAN VEGANS MAXIMIZE DHA AND EPA PRODUCTION? * Include sources of alpha-linolenic acid in your diet on a regular basis. Major sources include ground flaxseed flaxseed /flax·seed/ (flak´sed) linseed. , flaxseed oil, canola oil, soy products, hemp products, and walnuts. Green leafy vegetables, sea vegetables, and pecans also provide smaller amounts of alpha-linolenic acid. (See Table 1, right.) * Whole flaxseeds are not well digested, so the alpha-linolenic acid that they contain is not available to us. If you are using flaxseeds as a source of alpha-linolenic acid, be sure to use ground or milled flaxseeds or flaxseed oil. * Avoid trans fats since they interfere with EPA and DHA production. Trans fats are found in foods containing hydrogenated fat, like margarine and commercial cookies and crackers. * Use less sunflower, safflower safflower, Eurasian thistlelike herb (Carthamus tinctorius) of the family Asteraceae (aster family). Safflower, or false saffron, has long been cultivated in S Asia and Egypt for food and medicine and as a costly but inferior substitute for the true saffron , corn, and sesame oil and more soybean soybean, soya bean, or soy pea, leguminous plant (Glycine max, G. soja, or Soja max) of the family Leguminosae (pulse family), native to tropical and warm temperate regions of Asia, where it has been , canola, and olive oil to promote DHA and EPA production. Sunflower, safflower, corn, and sesame oil are high in linoleic acid linoleic acid /lin·o·le·ic ac·id/ (lin?o-le´ik) a polyunsaturated fatty acid, occurring as a major constituent of many vegetable oils; it is used in the biosynthesis of prostaglandins and cell membranes. , an omega-6 fatty acid Noun 1. omega-6 fatty acid - a polyunsaturated fatty acid whose carbon chain has its first double valence bond six carbons from the beginning omega-6 that can interfere with DHA and EPA production. WHAT ABOUT SUPPLEMENTS OF OMEGA-3 FATTY ACIDS? Alpha-linolenic acid supplements produce a small increase in blood EPA concentrations but do not increase concentrations of DHA in the blood. (13) These results have led some researchers to recommend direct supplementation with DHA for some groups with increased needs for EPA and DHA (pregnant and breastfeeding women) or with a risk for low conversion of alpha-linolenic acid to EPA and DHA (people with diabetes, premature infants). (8, 14) DHA supplements can increase blood concentrations of both DHA and EPA. Supplements with both EPA and DHA also are effective in increasing blood levels of EPA and DHA. (15) WHAT AMOUNT OF OMEGA-3 FATTY ACIDS DO WE NEED? There is limited storage of omega-3 fatty acids in our bodies, so these fatty acids should be a regular part of the diet. (15) When you are thinking about the amount of omega-3 fatty acids that you should be getting, one key question is whether you are relying on alpha-linolenic acid being converted to EPA and DHA or taking a direct source of DHA. If you are a vegan relying only on alpha-linolenic acid as the source of omega-3 fatty acids, approximately 1-2 percent of calories should come from alpha-linolenic acid. (15) For the typical adult man, this would be 2,200-5,300 milligrams (2.2-5.3 grams) of alpha-linolenic acid; for the typical adult woman, 1,800-4,400 milligrams (1.8-4.4 grams). Very active and heavier people as well as pregnant and lactating lac·tate 1 intr.v. lac·tat·ed, lac·tat·ing, lac·tates To secrete or produce milk. [Latin lact women should strive for the higher end of the range; smaller and more sedentary people should aim towards the lower end. If you are using a supplement or foods that contain DHA or EPA on a daily basis, strive for the adequate intake for alpha-linolenic acid established by the Institute of Medicine of 1.6 grams per day for men and 1.1 grams per day for women. (3) There is no Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA RDA abbr. recommended daily allowance Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) The Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) are quantities of nutrients in the diet that are required to maintain good health in people. ) for EPA or DHA, but the American Heart Association American Heart Association (AHA), n.pr a national voluntary health agency that has the goal of increasing public and medical awareness of cardiovascular diseases and stroke, and thereby reducing the number of associated deaths and disabilities. recommends 500-1,800 milligrams (0.5-1.8 grams) per day of DHA and/or EPA to significantly reduce the risk of death from heart disease. 17 This level seems appropriate for people with a family history of heart disease, although there have been no studies examining whether DHA supplements further reduce the risk of death from heart disease in vegans. Because of DHA's role in infant development, several groups (2, 18) have suggested that pregnant and lactating women get 200-300 milligrams (0.2-0.3 grams) of DHA daily from fortified fortified (fôrt  ´fīd),adj containing additives more potent than the principal ingredient. food or supplements. CAN SOMEONE GET TOO MUCH OF THE OMEGA-3 FATTY ACIDS? There is not enough information available to set a safe upper limit for omega-3 fatty acids. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA FDA abbr. Food and Drug Administration FDA, n.pr See Food and Drug Administration. FDA, n.pr the abbreviation for the Food and Drug Administration. ) says up to 3 grams (3,000 milligrams) per day of EPA + DHA is generally recognized as safe Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) is a United States of America Food and Drug Administration (FDA) designation that a chemical or substance added to food is considered safe by experts, and so is exempted from the usual Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA) food . (19) DHA and EPA may have negative effects on the immune system and may inhibit blood clotting, so supplementation should only be done with caution. More is not necessarily better. Men at risk for prostate cancer should not use high amounts of alpha-linolenic acid since one study found that those men whose diets were highest in alpha-linolenic acid had an increased risk of developing advanced prostate cancer. (20) The other omega-3 fatty acids, EPA and DHA, were associated with lower prostate cancer risk. WHAT'S THE BOTTOM LINE? The topic of omega-3 fatty acids, like many topics in nutrition, is fluid. Recommendations change as new studies provide more information. Based on what we know today, here's what you need to remember: * Alpha-linolenic acid is an essential fatty acid; that means we need to obtain it from food or supplements. To prevent deficiency, vegan adults should have 1-2 percent of calories from alpha-linolenic acid--2,220-5,300 milligrams of alpha-linolenic acid for the typical adult man, 1,800-4,400 milligrams for the typical adult woman. * Good sources of alpha-linolenic acid include ground flaxseed, flaxseed oil, canola oil, soy products, hemp products, and walnuts. Table 1 (on page 23) provides information about the amount of alpha-linolenic acid in various foods. * Vegan pregnant and breastfeeding women, people at risk for heart disease or high blood pressure, and people with diabetes are the groups most likely to benefit from supplements of DHA. Approximately 500-1,800 milligrams of DHA has been recommended to reduce the risk of heart disease (17); 200-300 milligrams of DHA is suggested for pregnant and breastfeeding women. (2,18) By Reed Mangels mangels Beta vulgaris; called also mangel-wurzel. , PhD, RD References: (1) Gebauer SK, Psota TL, Harris WS, Kris-Etherton PM. 2006. N-3 fatty acid n-3 fatty acid n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid, omega-3 fatty acid A family of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids, primarily eicosapentaenoic–C20:5 and docosahexanenoic acid–C22:6; ↑ dietary NFAs are cardioprotective and have a positive impact dietary recommendations and food sources to achieve essentiality and cardiovascular benefits. Am J Clin Nutr 83(suppl):1526S-35S. (2) Jensen CL. 2006. Effects of n-3 fatty acids during pregnancy and lactation lactation Production of milk by female mammals after giving birth. The milk is discharged by the mammary glands in the breasts. Hormones triggered by delivery of the placenta and by nursing stimulate milk production. . Am J Clin Nutr 83(suppl):1452S-57S. (3) Williams CM, Burdge G. 2006. Long-chain n-3 PUFA PUFA polyunsaturated fatty acid. PUFA abbr. polyunsaturated fatty acid PUFA polyunsaturated fatty acids. : plant v. marine sources. Proc Nutr Soc 65:42-50. (4) Food and Nutrition Food and Nutrition See also cheese; dining; milk. accubation Rare. the act or habit of reclining at meals. alimentology Medicine. thescience of nutrition. allotriophagy Pathology. Board, Institute of Medicine. Dietary Reference Intakes dietary reference intakes (DRIs), n.pl a set of nutritional guidelines concerning the intake of vitamins and minerals from food rather than supplements. for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol Protein, and Amino Acids. Washington: National Academies Press, 2002. (5) Sontrop J, Campbell MK. 2006. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and depression: A review of the evidence and a methodological critique. Prev Med 42:4-13. (6) Johnson EJ, Schaefer EJ. 2006. Potential role of dietary n-3 fatty acids in the prevention of dementia Prevention of dementia is the attempt to avoid developing dementia. Although no cure for dementia is available, there are many ways to decrease the risk of acquiring dementia in the first place, including both lifestyle changes and medication. and macular degeneration. Am J Clin Nutr 83(suppl):1494S-98S. (7) Calder PC. 2006. N-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, inflammation, and inflammatory diseases. Am J Clin Nutr 83(suppl): 1505S-19S. (8) Davis BC, Kris-Etherton PM. 2003. Achieving optimal essential fatty acid status in vegetarians: current knowledge and practical implications. Am J Clin Nutr 78(suppl):640S-46S. (9) Resell MS, Hoyd-Wright Z, Appleby PN, et al. 2005. Long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in plasma in British meat-eating, vegetarian, and vegan men. Am J Clin Nutr 82:327-34. (10) Sanders TAB, Reddy S. 1992. The influence of a vegetarian diet on the fatty acid composition of human milk and the essential fatty acid status of the infant. J Pediatr 120:S71-77. (11) Uauy R, Peirano P, Hoffman D, et al. 1996. Role of essential fatty acids Essential fatty acids Sources of fat in the diet, including omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids. Mentioned in: Nutritional Supplements in the function of the developing nervous system. Lipids 3:S167-S76. (12) Francois CA, Connor SL, Bolewicz LC, Connor WE. 2003. Supplementing lactating women with flaxseed oil does not increase docosahexaenoic acid in their milk. Am J Clin Nutr 77:226-33. (13) Harper CR, Edwards MJ, DeFilipis AP, Jacobson TA. 2006. Flaxseed oil increases the plasma concentrations of cardioprotective (n-3) fatty acids in humans. J Nutr 136:83-87. (14) Geppert J, Kraft V, Demmelmair H, Koletzko B. 2005. Docosahexaenoic acid supplementation in vegetarians effectively increases omega-3 index: a randomized ran·dom·ize tr.v. ran·dom·ized, ran·dom·iz·ing, ran·dom·iz·es To make random in arrangement, especially in order to control the variables in an experiment. trial. Lipids 40:807-14. (15) Arterburn LM, Hall EB, Oken H. 2006. Distribution, interconversion in·ter·con·ver·sion n. Mutual conversion. in  ter·con·vert v. , and dose response of n-3 fatty acids in humans. Am J
Clin Nutr 83(suppl): 1467S-76S.(16) WHO/FAO (World Health Organization/Food and Agriculture Organization). Diet, Nutrition and the Prevention of Chronic Diseases. WHO Technical Report Series 916. (Geneva Geneva, canton and city, Switzerland Geneva (jənē`və), Fr. Genève, canton (1990 pop. 373,019), 109 sq mi (282 sq km), SW Switzerland, surrounding the southwest tip of the Lake of Geneva. : World Health Organization, 2003.) (17) Kris-Etherton PM, Harris WS, Appel LJ. 2002. AHA Scientific Statement. Fish consumption, fish oil, omega-3 fatty acids, and cardiovascular disease. Circulation 106:2747-57. (18) Melina V, Davis B. The New Becoming Vegetarian. Summertown: Book Publishing Company, 2003. (19) Department of Health and Human Services Noun 1. Department of Health and Human Services - the United States federal department that administers all federal programs dealing with health and welfare; created in 1979 Health and Human Services, HHS , U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Substances affirmed as generally recognized as safe: menhaden oil. Federal Register. June 5, 1997. Vol. 62, No. 108: pp 30751-30757. 21 CFR CFR See: Cost and Freight Part 184 [Docket A written list of judicial proceedings set down for trial in a court. To enter the dates of judicial proceedings scheduled for trial in a book kept by a court. No. 86G-0289]. Available at <frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgibin/ getdoc.cgi?dbname=1997_register&docid=fr05jn97-5>. (20) Leitzmann MF, Stampfer MJ, Michaud DS, et al. 2004. Dietary intake of n-3 and n-6 fatty acids and the risk of prostate cancer. Am J Clin Nutr 80:204-16. Vegan DHA and DHA + EPA Supplements * O-Mega-Zen 3 300 mg DHA/capsule--www.nutru.com * Dr. Fuhrman's DHA Purity 175 mg DHA/0.5 ml--www.drfuhrman.com/ shop/DHA.aspx * Vegan Omega-3 DHA 200 mg DHM DHM Deutsches Historisches Museum (Berlin) DHM Deutsche Harmonia Mundi DHM Digital Human Modeling DHM Department of Hydrology and Meteorology (Nepal) DHM Deep Heat Mining DHM Diploma in Hotel Management capsule--www.devanutrition.com * V-Pure Omega-3 135 mg DHA + 37.5 mg EPA/capsule--www.water4.net/products.htm
Sample Menu That Provides At Least 4,400 Milligrams
of Alpha-Linolenic Acid Daily--DAY 1
BREAKFAST:
* 1 bagel with jelly
* 1 medium orange
* 1 cup cold cereal
* 1 cup enriched soymilk
LUNCH:
* Hummus sandwich made with:
* Hummus (3/4 cup chickpeas and
2 teaspoons tahini)
* 3 slices of tomato
* 2 slices of whole wheat bread
* 1 medium apple
DINNER:
* 1 cup of cooked pasta with
* 1/4 cup marinara sauce
* 1/3 cup carrot sticks
* 1 cup cooked broccoli sauteed
in 1 teaspoon canola oil
* 1 whole wheat roll
* A juice pop made with 1 cup frozen
grape juice
SNACK:
* 1/2 cup trail mix (mix of dates, raisins,
and at least 3 Tablespoons of walnuts)
* 1 cup enriched soymilk
Sample Menu That Provides At Least 4,400 Milligrams
of Alpha-Linolenic Acid Daily--DAY 2
BREAKFAST:
* 1 serving hot cereal containing milled
flaxseed with:
* 3 Tablespoons wheat germ
* 1/4 cup raisins or dates
* 1 ounce chopped walnuts
* 1 cup diced cantaloupe
* 1 cup enriched soymilk
LUNCH:
* Burrito made with:
* 1 whole wheat tortilla
* 1/2 cup black beans
* 1 Tablespoon salsa
* 1 ounce lowfat tortilla chips with:
* 1/4 cup salsa
DINNER:
* Stir-fry made with:
* 1/2 cup diced tofu
* 1 cup vegetables
* 2 Tablespoons soy sauce
* 1 1/2 cups cooked quick brown rice
* 1 teaspoon canola oil
* 3 graham crackers
* 6 ounces calcium-fortified vegetable
juice
SNACK:
* 3 cups popped popcorn with:
* 1 Tablespoon Vegetarian Support
Formula nutritional yeast
* 1 cup enriched soymilk
TABLE 1: Alpha-Linolenic
Acid in Foods
ALPHA-
FOOD, LINOLENIC ACID
SERVING SIZE (Milligrams/Serving)
Avocado, 1/2 125
Breakfast cereal 400-1,000
containing flax and/
or hemp, 1 serving *
Broccoli, cooked, 1 cup 190
Cabbage, cooked, 1 cup 165
Canola oil, 1 teaspoon 400
Collards, cooked, 1 cup 180
Flaxseed oil, 1 teaspoon 2,400
Flaxseed, ground, 1 teaspoon * 570
Hot cereal containing flax, 450
1 serving *
Kale, cooked, 1 cup 130
Pasta containing flax, 600
1 serving *
Peanut butter containing 1,000
flaxseed oil, 2 Tablespoons
Pecans, 1/4 cup 240
Snack bar containing flax 400-2,100
and/or hemp, 1 bar *
Soybean oil, 1 teaspoon 300
Soybeans, cooked, '/2 cup 320-510
Soymilk, 1 cup 210
Soy nuts, 1/4 cup 725
Tempeh, 3 ounces 120
Tofu, 1/2 cup 400
Walnuts, 1/4 cup 2,270-2,700
Walnut oil, 1 teaspoon 470
* Flaxseed should be ground or milled; otherwise little or no
alpha-linolenic acid will be absorbed.
Sources: Composition of Foods. USDA Nutrient Data Base
for Standard Reference, Release 18, 2005, and manufacturers'
information.
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