Qadi Sa id's introduction to his Tabaqat al-Umam.

This article provides a critical assessment of the first chapter of Tabaqat al-Umam of Qadi Sa id al-Andalusi who died at Toledo in 1070 CE. This book is a slender volume of great importance for the history of science in antiquity and early Middle Ages. The first chapter, simply called "Introduction", is described here in detail and its merits and demerits are considered.

Keywords: Tabaqat al-Umam of Qadi Sa id al-Andalusi; history of science in Antiquity and early Middle Ages; early Muslim scholars and geographers; history of nations.

**********

The Tabaqat al-Umam of Qadi Sa id al-Andalusi who died at Toledo in 1070 CE, is a slender volume of great importance for the history of science in antiquity and the early Middle Ages and it could be considered as the first global history of science. Its manuscripts are found throughout the world and it is available in several editions and reprints. (1) An English translation of this book has already been published as Science in the Medieval World: Book of the Categories of Nations by S. I. Salem and A. Kumar. (2) My translations of chapters on India, Persia, Chaldea, Egypt, and Greece have already been published. (3) A critical assessment of the "Introduction" of the book is presented here.

There are three important statements at the beginning of the "Introduction". (4) First, the nations of the world differ in three distinct traits: (i) character; (ii) physical appearance; and (iii) language. Second, the author states that before linguistic divisions appeared as distinguishing marks, nations of the world were divided into seven original nations: Persian, Chaldean, Greek, Egyptian, Turk, Indian and Chinese. (5) These seven nations share a common scientific and philosophical heritage. The Arabs are not included in this list of seven nations but the author adds them to those who contributed to the development and progress of science. Third, the people of the world are divided into two broad categories: the first category is consists of those who have contributed to the intellectual and scientific knowledge; the other which did not cultivate sciences and occupied themselves with material and manual tasks.

The first category consists of eight nations of the world: the Indians, the Persians, the Chaldeans, the Greeks, the Hebrews, the Romans, the Egyptians, and the Arabs. According to him, the second category of people, which did not contribute to science and knowledge, are more like beasts than human beings. They are the Chinese, the Gog and the Magog, the Turks, the Burtas, the Sarir, the Khazar, the Jilan the Mugan, the Kashshak, the Alans (Scyths), the Slavs, the Bulgars, the Russians, the Burgans, and the various black peoples such as the Abyssinians, Nubians, Zanj, Ghanaians. They did not acquire wisdom, nor did they study sciences.

Environmental Determinism

Following Greek ideas, Qadi Sa id divides the inhabited world into seven latitudinal regions north of the equator. He also divides it longitudinally into eastern and western regions situated in the extreme north on the basis of the seven climatic zones corresponding to the seven signs of the Zodiac. (6) The author does not discuss astral or planetary influences, i.e. astrological, on the character and personality of human beings but writes about climatic and atmospheric influences on man which in modern terms would be called environmental determinism, a theory which has now been discarded.

Ibn Khaldun (d. Ramadan 808/ March 1406) expresses similar ideas that the temperate zone contains the civilized people of the golden mean which are situated from the third through fifth climatic zones. This is due to the fact that the first and second zones are too hot and the sixth and seventh zones are too cold. The temperate zone countries are North Africa, Syria, Iraq, India, China, Spain, and France. Among them Syria and Iraq have the most moderate climate. (7)

Qadi Sa id stated that the nations inhabiting the extreme northern or southern regions of the world are not civilized. Ibn Khaldun is of the view that the peace and prosperity of an established government are enjoyed only by nations living in the fourth climatic zone, i.e. the temperate regions of the world. (8) But Qadi Sa id also adds that all the illiterate and uncivilized nations who inhabit different parts of the world in the north or the south, the east or the west are sedentary, but not devoid of civil government nor could they escape those unwritten Divine Laws which placed them under a settled organization. He records that this remark does not apply to some Bedouin and savage tribes of Africa, such as those of Beja, Ghana and Zanj.

Habitat of the Seven Original Nations

Qadi Sa id's use of the phrase "habitable world" (ma'mur) is more or less correct. Geographer Hecataeus of Miletus (ca. 499-449 BC) and the Greek historian Herodotus (ca. 485-425 BC) had first used this phrase. Here Qadi Sa id states that the inhabited world extends south of the equator, contrary to the view of the ancient authors. He says that the habitat of the first people, the Persians, the fourth climatic zone, was known as the best zone in ancient and medieval times. The boundaries of the Persian Empire changed slightly due to the political and military upheavals.

The second group of people was that of the Chaldeans, Babylonians, Syrians, Assyrians, Nabateans, and others who inhabited modern Syria and Iraq, the land of the two rivers--the Tigris and Euphrates. They enjoyed the best climate in the fourth climatic zone, (9) close to the habitat of the first nation and they formed one people.

The habitat of the third people includes the Greeks, the Romans, the Franks, and others; it covers a very wide area extending to Russia. Qaid Sa id treats them as one nation, perhaps because all these territories once formed part of the Roman Empire.

The fourth people are the Coptic Christians living mostly in Egypt. (10) Qadi Sa id differentiates them from other nations inhabiting other parts of northern and western Africa perhaps because they belong to the second category. The fifth people are different Turkish tribes but their habitat is not defined. (11) The sixth people inhabited the Sind region. It is quite evident that Qadi Sa id had knowledge only of Sind which was under Muslim rule, and formed a separate region from the rest of India in the north-western part of Indian subcontinent. It is correct that this area spoke one language, Sindhi; this is confirmed by many Muslim geographers. (12)

He mentions the Chinese as the seventh original nation of antiquity living in a vast and powerful empire and it is correct that their language was one, but most probably several dialects were spoken in China.

Languages

Qadi Sa id asserts that the unity and diversity of the peoples of the world are based mainly on language and he believed in the multiplicity of languages (13) and cultural traditions. He is particular in recording the languages spoken by the seven original nations as well as branches and dialects of all major languages. For example, for the Chaldean-Babylonian region, (14) he states that Syriac was the main language but its branches Hebrew and Arabic were also spoken in this area. Similarly, the first people, the Persians, spoke mainly Persian or Farsi, though some of them also spoke Pahlawi and Dari which were dialects of Persian. Throughout this "Introduction" the author gives the impression that in his view language is the most important constituent of a people. It is interesting to note that the author states that Syriac was the language of Adam and some other Prophets. Generally speaking, it is considered to be the language of Abraham. (15) Hebrew was the language of Isra'il as Arabic was spoken by the Arabs. Pahlawi was spoken in five towns of Iran, Isfahan, Rayy, Hadmadan, Nehawand, and Azarbayjan. The seven peoples are divided on the basis of ethnic and linguistic differences.

Religion

Qadi Sa id records religion followed by each of the seven original peoples of antiquity but does not give the impression that he considered it an important constituent of a people. He uses a general nomenclature "Sabeans" for all who worshipped idols as symbols of the heavenly essence and celestial forms i.e. the seven planets. The author suggests that those who were not Jews, Christians, or Muslims, were all pagans. He does not mean particularly the Sabeans of Harran only but uses it in a general sense. (16) However, the Sabeans are called "People of the Book" in the Qur'an.

Occupation

Qadi Sa id divided people of the world on the basis of their contributions to sciences and learning. He relegated the Western peoples to the bottom of the second category which made no contribution to sciences. (17) Their habitat is deep in the north between the end of the seven climatic zones and the margin of the habitable world, he reasoned, this climatic situation has made their bodies bulky, their color pale and their hair long. They are unintelligent, ignorant, and stupid due to the extreme distance of the sun from their heads resulting in cold climate and thick atmosphere; their temperaments have become chilly and their humors rude. They are ranked with Berbers, Sudanese, Slavs, Bulgas, Chinese and Turks who cultivated no sciences.

Sources of Qadi's Sa id's Views

Qadi Sa id is not very particular in mentioning the sources of his information and in this "Introduction" he has not mentioned even one of them. However, the publication of a critical edition of the Kitab at-Tanbih wa'l-Ishraf by Ali ibn al-Hasan al-Mas udi (d. 345/956) has made it easy to identify an important source of Qadi Sa id's views. The statement that the people of the world are distinguished and differentiated by three traits, (character, physique and language) has been taken from al-Mas udi's book. (18) Moreover, the division of humanity into seven nations recorded by Qadi Sa id has been borrowed from the same book, as they appear in the same order in both texts. (19) The idea that each of these seven nations was formed on the basis of one language is that of al-Mas udi's.

Al-Mas udi's younger contemporary, Eamza al-Isfahani (ca. 356/961) also divides the ancient world into seven nation groups. (20) Originally, this idea of seven primordial nations is Greek and it might be the source of both Hamza al-Isfahani and al-Mas udi. Generally speaking, four original nations (the Arabs, the Byzantines, the Persians and the Indians) are often mentioned by many Arab authors. (21) It appears that no Arabic geographical work of the genre of Kitab al-Masalik w'al-Mamalik was available to Qadi Sa id. Therefore, his geographical information and his comments on environmental determination are derived from Ptolemy's work. (22)

Like al-Mas udi, Qadi Sa id was not interested in political chronology (23) but each of them was interested in cultural history. Therefore, insofar as the cultural history of the ancient nations are concerned, one of Qadi Sa id most important sources of information was the works of al-Mas udi available to him in al-Andalus. (24) There cannot be any doubt that this book was none other than his Kitab al-Tanbih wa'l-Ishraf.

A comparative study of the two texts, the Tanbih and the Tabaqat, reveals that the extensive borrowing by Qadi Sa id from al-Mas udi is not total but is selective and much condensed. Great detail of the influence of the geographical and physical conditions of different nations appears in al-Ma sudi, but is very short and concise in Qadi. Information about languages spoken by the earlier nations is quite short in the Tabaqat but al-Ma sudi describes these languages and discusses their linguistic characteristics in detail. Similar is the case with the definition and characteristics of the seven climatic zones in these two works. But the names of the Turkish tribes given by al-Mas udi and Qadi Sa id differ widely.

The Tanbih of al-Mas udi is an important source of this "Introduction" but other sources are difficult to determine with any accuracy. In his chapter on "Sciences Among the Greeks", Qadi Sa id mentions al-Mas udi but not any book of his as his source for the explanation of the word Aristotle and the meaning of his father's name Nichomachus. In the same chapter he again refers to al-Mas udi for the life and times of Galen. But he does not mention al-Mas udi in this "Introduction" at all, although he extensively borrowed from the Tanbih. (25) This is a very serious omission. Perhaps, like the habit of other Arab writers of Medieval times, he did not consider it necessary to acknowledge his indebtedness to al-Mas udi or his book and assumed that readers already know al-Mas udi's work and can easily trace the source back to him.

Qadi Sa id's ideas about the division of the nations of the world into two categories, one contributing to the development of human knowledge and the other comprising of those who did not, seems to be his own. It is difficult to find a parallel idea in the whole gamut of Arabic works currently available. He has also given a number of Arabic proverbs at the end of his "Introduction"; the sources of these proverbs can be easily identified. (26)

The author's description of the artistic and delicate craftsmanship and manual skills of the Chinese and their expertise in the technique of painting have been obtained from the Muruj (27) of al-Mas udi and not from his Tanbih. The Muruj is a voluminous book and the question may be asked whether it was available to Qadi Sa id at Toledo or if he had borrowed this statement from some other source which copied from the Muruj of al-Mas udi. Similarly, it cannot be stated for certain whether his use of the Tanbih of al-Mas udi is direct or indirect.

In selecting the seven nations, he does not follow the Biblical genealogy of nations nor does he follow the Qur'an which states that Mankind was one single nation, (28) and O ye people, We have created you from a male and a female, and have made you into tribes and nations, so that you might come to know one another. Verily, the noblest amongst you in the sight of God is the one who is most deeply conscious of Him. Behold, God is all-knowing, all aware. (29)

Merits

In this "Introduction" the author has laid stress on the rational faculties of man which is basically an Aristotelian idea. He asserts that it is due to reason that man is superior to all animals. He suggests explicitly that man should always make use of his rational faculty which is the greatest gift of God to man. If he does not use his reason and does not take interest in intellectual pursuit, he becomes like an animal. But insofar as physical strength is concerned, and even in common sense, many animals are superior to man. Therefore, it is only human reason which makes him superior to all creatures, provided he makes use of this reason for the development and progress of knowledge. (30)

The division of the different nations into two categories on account of their different occupations seems to be an original idea. This classification furnishes interesting information regarding the predominant occupations of the different nations of the world in antiquity. Qadi Sa id correctly states that the Turks have a reputation of being hardy fighters, expert in horsemanship and wars. The author asserts that the Chinese did not contribute to the development of science but they are experts in manual arts and crafts especially in painting.

A modern historian of science considers this statement about the nations who contributed to the development of science as correct, if it is supposed that by the Romans Qadi Sa id means the Byzantines and by the Egyptians, the Alexandrian School. (31) This statement about the original nations is repeated by Ibn al- Ibri (32) and Ibn al-Qifti (33) and others; the latter mentions the eight nations who have contributed to the development of science.

The author ends his "Introduction" by stating that the rational qualities of the human soul are important while physical strength is not. (34) Beasts surpass human beings in their ways of performing many functions. He illustrates this with many Arabic proverbs relating to the qualities of animals in which they prove to be superior to human beings in beastly power. If the nations belonging to the first category would not have spread the light of knowledge and reason in this world then it would have been a dark and desolate place, not suitable for human habitation.

Demerits

This chapter's demerits have to be critically discussed. The theory of environmental determinism was discussed by leading modern geographers such as McKinder of Britian, Ellsworth Huntington of the United States, and Griffith Taylor of Australia, but now has been totally discarded. Qadi Sa id has confounded the correlation between racial and ethnic characteristics and internal features; also he claims that the inhabited world extends south of the equator, which is contrary to the statement of all ancient authors. Further, he does not territorially define North, South, East and West, and merely uses generalizations.

One may not agree with the classification of nations on the basis of their difference about their occupations as has been done in this "Introduction" as this is scientifically incorrect, because each nation has a mixture of occupational groups such as scientists, agriculturists, weavers, lay workers, and ordinary laborers who are manual workers. However, this classification furnishes interesting information regarding the predominant occupations of the different nations of the world in Antiquity. It is correct to state that the Turks had a reputation of being hardy and brave fighters (35) as has been attested by al-Jahiz and other early Arab writers. (36)

It is not correct that the Chinese did not contribute to the development of science and technology. They had invented paper and glass which were taken to Turkey from China and from there to Europe. (37) However, contrary to the popular view that there was little or no science in early China, the Chinese were known as experts in calligraphy and painting at the time of Qadi Sa id. There were also brilliant engineers among them who contributed to the development of new techniques.

Further, it can be pointed out that Qadi Sa id had no sense of chronology or sequence of time while writing the chapter. Moreover, ethnically differentiated people have been lumped together, for example, the Copts and the Berbers are not ethnically the same people. He writes about the Copts but he should have mentioned the Egypt of Pharaohs which represented a remarkable ancient civilization. Writing about those nations who have contributed to the development of science and philosophy, he attributes it to the favor God has especially bestowed on them. His statements that Allah bestows His favor generously on whomsoever He chooses and withholds His grace away from whomsoever He chooses are actually derived from the verses of the Qur'an, but are not applicable to such classifications.

Conclusion

The "Introduction" has to be appreciated "for its rich and vast range of information on a variety of subjects, for the insight it offers and for its remarkable observations on human behavior and society." (38) It contains historical and geographical facts and personal opinions and observations of the author, some of which are difficult to agree with now. He depended heavily on al-Mas udi who drew not only on Islamic sources and his own observations and research, but also on Greco-Roman sources, For example, the idea of the influence of the geographical and physical factors on human character and behavior seems to be original and valuable and was accepted and appreciated at the time of the writing of this "Introduction" in the eleventh century but in modern times it has been completely discarded. If some statements in the "Introduction" were to be rationally evaluated or checked in the light of empirical evidence available now, they would be proven incorrect and unacceptable.

Regarding the similarities of the ideas of Qadi Sa id and Ibn Khaldun about the influence of geographical and physical factors of a country on the physique and character of its people, it has already been stated that both have used identical Greek sources of information. But there may be good reasons to believe that Ibn Khaldun migh have been influenced (39) by this book because it was widely diffused in al-Andalus from where Ibn Khaldun hailed.

It is a fact that the publication of the Kitab at-Tanbih of al-Mas udi, which is the main source of this chapter, has greatly reduced its value and importance. The most serious omission is that Qadi Sa id has not acknowledged this indebtedness as already stated above. However, the fact remains that extensive borrowing from a former author by a later one, even without acknowledgement, was quite common among the Medieval Arab Muslim authors. Qadi Sa id has mentioned al-Mas udi's full name as Abul Hasan 'Ali bin al-Husain al-Mas udi twice in the chapter of "Sciences among the Greeks" but has not mentioned the Tanbih, nor any actual title of any book of al-Mas udi. But this chapter cannot be discarded completely as it contains some original and useful information in a new context not found in al-Mas udi or elsewhere, Moreover, it represents the humanistic weltanschauung of a judge of Toledo about his assessment of sciences in antiquity in the eleventh century, like that of al-Mas udi, (40) the humanist, who was broadly interested in the culture of non-Muslims and their history and civilization.

   The Author wishes to thank A. R. Monin of Bombay University, Greg
   De Young of the American University of Cairo, S. Manzoor Alam of
   Osmania University, Hyderabad, and Husam as-Saghir of the Oriental
   Seminars, Goethe University at Frankfurt-am-Main for their valuable
   suggestions.

(1.) It was first edited by L. Cheikho (Beirut: Dar Talai', 1913); a new edition appeared in 1985, this time edited by Hayat Bu 'Alwan (Beirut: Dar Talai'a, 1985); an Iranian edition was published by Gholam Reza Jamshed Nazad Awwal (Tehran: 1376 AH).

(2.) Semann I. Salem and Aloke Kumar (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1991). This translation contains innumerable errors and its introduction is short and inadequate. It received many negative reviews from scholars; see my critical review in Muslim World Book Review, Vol. 15 (1995) No. 2, 46-50.

(3.) See: "Qadi Sa id al-Andalusi's Account of Ancient Indian Science and Culture" in Journal of Pakistan Historical Society, Vol. 45 (January, 1997) No. 1, 1-39; "A Chapter on Ancient Persia in an Eleventh Century Hispano-Arabic Work" in Iran Society Silver Jubilee Souvenir Volume (Calcutta: n.p., 1970), 213-30; "A Chapter on Ancient Chaldean Science in an Eleventh Century Hispano-Arabic Work" in Islamic Quarterly, Vol. XVI (Jan-June 1972) No. S1 &2, 12-35; "Qadi Sa id al-Andalusi's Account of Science among the People of Egypt" in Islamic Culture Vol. LXXX (April 1997) No. 2, 51-75; "A Chapter on Roman (Byzantine) Sciences in an Eleventh Century Hispano-Arabic Work" in Islamic Studies, Vol. 22 (Spring 1983), 41-70; the chapter on Greece, "al-'ilm fi'l Yunan" is under preparation.

(4.) These statements are found in al-Masudi's Kitab at-Tanbih, ed. by Do Goeje (Leiden: Brill, 1894); reprnt. (Beirut: Khayat), 1965.

(5.) This classification of the ancient nations into seven was first mentioned by al-Mas udi. Before him, generally speaking, they were classified into four: the Byzantines, the Arabs, the Persians, and the Indians. See al-Jahiz, al-Bayan, 1, 384 and at-Tawhidi, al-Imta, I, 70. Ta'rif Khalidi believes that the seven nation theory is Greek. See his Islamic Historiography, The Histories of Mas udi, 90, note 2. See also Ahmed M. H. Shboul, Al-Masudi and His World (London: Ithaca Press, 1979), 156, n. 300.

(6.) See al-Mas udi, Tanbih, 22ff. The geography of the inhabited world given in this chapter is actually taken mainly from al-Mas udi.

(7.) Ibn Khaldun, The Muqaddimah, trans. by Franz Rosenthal, edited and abridged by N. J. Dawood (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1967), 45-90.

(8.) The statements about environmental determinism made by al-Mas udi, Qadi Sa id and Ibn Khaldun are similar. Qadi Sa id has copied from al-Mas udi, who might have had a copy of the Arabic translation of the Geography of Ptolemy. Ibn Khaldun clearly mentions the Geography of Ptolemy and the Kitab al-Mushtaq of al-Idrisi as his sources. See Ibn Khaldun's Muqaddimah, op. cit., 94-176.

(9.) Borrowed from al-Ma'sudi, 35. The word 'clime' is not used in the English translation, the Greco-Latin form 'clima', pl. 'climata' is preferred by O. Neugebauer, A History of Ancient Mathematical Astronomy (Berlin, Heidelberg, and New York, n.p., 1975), 727-36. The standard monograph on the subject is that of E. Honigmann, Die Sieben Klimata (Heidelberg, n.p., 1929). See A. Miquel, "Iklim" in the Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. III, 1076-78.

(10.) Al-Mas udi mentions that Libya is included in Egypt as the fourth nation, Tanbih, 83; Qadi Sa id has omitted it.

(11.) Al-Mas udi mentions only five Turkish tribes: Kharlukh, Ghuzz, Kimak, Tughuz-Oghuz, and Khazar. See Tanbih, 85, whereas Qadi Sa id has recorded ten Turkish tribes who have contributed to the development of science. They are: Kharlukh, Kimak, Toghuz-Oghuz, Khazar, Sarir, Gilan, Jurzan (Georgians), Talasan, Kashak and Burtas. See Tabaqat (Tehran ed.), 144.

(12.) See al-Ma'sudi, Muruj adh-Dhahab, edited by Charles Pellat, Vol. 2 (Beirut, 1960) Section 1169, 276. Tanbih, 83. Also see, G. Le Strange, Lands of the Eastern Caliphate (Cambridge, n.p., 1930 reprint), 331 where references to Arab geographers on Sind are given in note no. 1, and Ibn Hawqal, Kitab Surat al-Ard (Leiden: n.p., 1939), Pt II, 317-330 who gives a map of Sind.

(13.) Like al-Mas udi, Qadi Sa id also expressed the view that language is the most important constituent of a people (nation). See Tanbih, 80-1. About the different languages spoken by the seven ancient nations Qadi Sa id follows al-Mas udi. Both state that one single Kingdom can only be established on the basis of one language spoken by the people.

(14.) This book contains a chapter entitled "al-'ilm fi'l-Kaldan" (see Tabaqat, Tehran ed. 163-66), dealing with the sciences of the Chaldeans but Qadi Sa id does not mention the language spoken by these people. Hebrew and Arabic are not branches of Syriac. It is correct to state that Hebrew, Arabic, and Syriac all belong to the Semitic family of languages.

(15.) Qadi Sa id states that Syriac was the language of Adam, a legendary statement not acceptable in modern times.

(16.) Sabean is used by both al-Mas udi and Qadi Sa id as a general term for star worshippers of the ancient world. When they mean the Sabeans of Harran, they specifically mention this. The Sabeans are mentioned in the Qur'an along with Jews and Christians, see al-Baraqah: 62 and al-Hajj: 17.

(17.) See Tabaqat, Tehran ed., 146-47. Quoted by P. K. Hitti, Islam and the West (Princeton: Van Nostram, 1962), 166. On 165 of this book, Hitti writes about al-Mas udi's view of the West quoting from his Muruj adh-shahab.

(18.) Tanbih, 77.

(19.) Tanbih, 77-78.

(20.) See his Ta'rikh Sani Muluk al-Ard wal-Anbiya', ed. by I. M. E, Gottwald (Leipsig, n.p., 1844).

(21.) Ta'rif Khalidi states that this classification is Greek in origin and refers to Dionysius of Halicarnassus, The Roman Antiquities trans. by Ernest Cary (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1937), Book I, 2-3.

(22.) There is evidence in the Tabaqat to prove that an Arabic translation of this book of Ptolemy was available to Qadi Sa id. In the chapter "Sciences in Greece" he has mentioned Ptolemy as one of its scientists and mentions his two books Almajest and Geography. Tabaqat, 180-81. In fact, Qadi Sa id has mentioned Ptolemy eight times in the Tabaqat.

(23.) In his Tanbih, al-Mas udi gives a detailed account of the political history of the seven ancient nations but Qadi Sa id completely ignores it.

(24.) Twenty-four books which Qadi Sa id has mentioned in the Tabaqat, which he is supposed to have used, are listed by the editor of the Tehran edition of the Tabaqat, see his Muqaddimah, 92-5 and its Arabic version 342-44.

(25.) See the Tabaqat, Tehran edition cited 172 and 178. These two statements are actually copied from the Tanbih. See edition of the Tanbih cited above, 116 and 131.

(26.) These proverbs are to be found in the following: Ahmad al-Maydani, Majma' al-Amthal (Beirut: Bulaq, 1284 AH); Hamza al-Isfahani, al-Dhurr'at al-Fakhira fi Amthal as-Sa'ira, 2 vols. (Cairo, n.p., 1971-72); Ibn 'Avd Rabgihi, al-Iqd al-Farid, 7 vols. ed by Ahmed Amin (Cairo, 1940-49). Volume VII contains Indices. Abu Hilal al- askari, Jamhart al-Amthal, 2 vols. (Cairo, n.p., 1284/1964); Al-Zamakhshari, al-Majstaqsa fi Amthal al- Arab, 2 vols. (Hyderabad, n.p., 1281/1962); Abu 'Ubayd al-Bakkar, Fasl al-Maqal fi Sharh Kitab al-anthal, ed. by Ihsan Abbas (Beirut, n.p., 1291/ 1971). See also G. W. Fraytag, Arabum Proverbis, vols. 1-3 (Bonn, n.p., 1838-43).

(27.) T arif Khalidi, 107 and 108 where he refers to the Muruj of al-Mas udi, also see: 319-20, 323 and 353.

(28.) al-Baqarah: 213, repeated again in Yunus: 19.

(29.) al-Hujurat: 13.

(30.) In the concluding paragraph, it is stated that God has created human beings with certain aims and objects which only they can understand and achieve with the help of reason, which is His best gift to man. This teaches them to abstain from the brutalities of animals and develops in them the quality of leadership. Thus, they are guiding, illuminating lamps of knowledge in the abject darkness of ignorance.

(31.) See Otto Neugebauer, "Transmission of Planetary Theories in Ancient and Medieval Astronomy" in Scripts Mathematica, Vol. 12 (1956), 105-92.

(32.) See his Mukhtasar Ta'rikh al-Duwal, ed. E. Pocock (Oxford, 1663, Suppl. 1672; ed. A. Salihani, Beirut, n.p., 1890), 158-9, 236-7.

(33.) See his Ta'rikh al-Hukama', ed. by J. Lippert (Leipzig, n.p., 1903), 27; he also borrows this division from Qadi Sa id and mentions the eight nations that have contributed to the development of sciences.

(34.) I believe that Qadi Sa id was influenced here by the following and other verses of the Qu'ran: Verily, the vilest of all creatures, in the sight of God are those deaf and dumb ones who do not use their reason. al-Anf al: (22).

(35.) "The Turk would rather obtain a maintenance by violent means than a Kingdom freely; he cannot enjoy his food at all unless he has got it by hunting or by plunder." in Al-Jahiz, Risala fi Manaqib at-Turk in Tria opuscula, ed. by G. Van Vloten (Leiden, 1903), 37. See also the chapter on the Turks in Tahir Marvazi in China, the Turks and India, ed. by V. Minoisky (London, n.p., 1942).

(36.) According to Al-Jahiz, there are only four civilized nations: the Arabs, the Persian, the Indians and the Byzantines. See his Kitab al-Bayan wa'l tibyan, Vol. 1 (Cairo, 1352), 128. This view was accepted and followed by the Arab geographers al-Isakhri (ca. 951 AD) and Ibn al-Hawqal (fl.977 AD).

(37.) See Joseph Needham's books Science and Civilization in China (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1954--), several volumes.

(38.) Quoted from a letter written by Professor A. R. Momin, Head Department of Sociology, Bombay University in India, dated 17th July, 2000.

(39.) The influence of Ibn Khaldun on Montesquieu and other European scholars and social scientists is frequently discussed but authors and books that might have influenced and guided him to form his revolutionary ideas about human society, 'asabiyah (tribal solidarity), and culture of science are seldom discussed.

(40.) Al-Mas udi was an early Muslim humanist. See Ahmed M. H. Shboul, al-Mas udi and his World, A Muslim Humanist and his Interest in Non-Muslims (London, n.p., 1979), 366. Ta rif Khalidi, op cit. 180.

M. S. Khan, Park Street Post Box No. 9448, Kolkata--700016, India.