Psychology and the Internet: Intrapersonal, Interpersonal, and Transpersonal Implications.

Edited by Jayne Gackenbach. San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 1998, 369 pages. Paper, $59.95. The Psychology of the Internet. Patricia Wallace. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999, 264 pages. Paper, $13.56.

Whatever else the Internet has spawned---cliches, deflated dot-com wealth, Napster addictions--it certainly must be credited with inspiring new waves of research. This is particularly true in the social sciences; after all, when was the last time (outside of a science-fiction novel) that a brand-new, text-based, nonvisual, social environment was created? Behavioral theories and social models are being put to new tests and are yielding new insights into this technologically advanced social milieu. Psychological research on the Internet is nicely described in the two books reviewed here. For the sake of this exposition, I will refer to these books by their author/editor, rather than using their confusingly similar titles.

Wallace and Gackenbach each approach their tasks from different perspectives. Wallace holds a doctorate in psychology, as well as a master's in Computer Systems Management--a seemingly magical combination for someone writing about psychology and the Internet. Gackenbach, also a doctorate in psychology, studies consciousness, lucidity, and dream control. To understand how this background ties into the psychology of the Internet, read the last three chapters of Gackenbach's edited volume. There the relationship between technology and consciousness is covered in depth; in addition, the authors speculate on the ways in which technology will alter human consciousness, and the Internet itself will, in turn, evolve.

These two books both present a variety of information about psychology and the Internet, and obviously they overlap in their coverage (with one notable exception being the aforementioned final three chapters in Gackenbach). However, the presentations are very different, and might best be summarized in terms of the audiences who might enjoy them. Wallace's book would be a terrific text for advanced psychology undergraduate majors, as it is not necessary to know much about psychology to understand the well-written and fascinating material. In part because this is a single-authored book, the flow of material is excellent and the writing consistently readable. Gackenbach's volume may be more appropriate for graduate students in social science, as the material is more dense. In addition, this is an edited volume, which means that the writing style and perspective of the authors varies, sometimes widely, from chapter to chapter. A working knowledge of basic philosophy would not hurt as background for this volume, either, as many of the authors delve into certain matters metaphysical.

Gackenbach

Sexuality researchers will find both volumes informative, though not necessarily in the expected topic areas. For example, my favorite chapters in Gackenbach were not explicitly related to sexuality. The first chapter, by Gackenbach and Ellerman ("Introduction to Psychological Aspects of Internet Use"), was a fascinating review of the history of human interaction with communications media in general. In addition, the historical overview helped put into perspective the vast array of sexual material on the Internet by pointing out that sexual expression has been online since the earliest days of publicly-available, computer-mediated communication.

The second and third chapters ("The Self and the Internet: Variations on the Illusions of One Self" by Reid, and "Causes and Implications of Disinhibited Behavior on the Internet" by Joinson) provided some interesting background material for my own research. Reid discussed multiple and fragmented selves and their relationship to online behaviors which may appear at odds with the "real life" personality of the Internet user. This discussion is part of a larger framework involving online communities, which can fail (as in the case of Jenny MUSH), or be made resilient through flexibility, accountability, and persistence. Joinson explored the psychological theories that may underlie the disinhibited behaviors exhibited on the Internet: Deindividuation, reduction in social cues, social presence theory, self-awareness, and social identity are all nicely summarized and contextualized. The implications of disinhibition, also addressed by Joinson, are particularly interesting in light of the sexual behaviors exhibited by both individuals and groups on the Internet.

Therapists of all persuasions may find two of Gackenbach's chapters especially applicable: In their chapter "Internet Therapy and Self-Help Groups," King and Moreggi discussed a variety of therapeutic modalities, including one-on-one therapy, self-help, and support groups. Important issues relating to text-based relationships and their implications for therapeutic efficacy are addressed. To their credit, King and Moreggi also addressed ethical concerns in the administration of therapy online. For the therapist's own professional development, see Grohol's chapter "Professional Development, Pathology, and On-Line Therapy." Such topics as professional communities, online continuing education, and online mental health services may be relevant to professionals, particularly practicing or academic psychologists.

Noonan's chapter on "Psychology of Sex: A Mirror from the Internet" was the chapter I most anticipated reading, though I sheepishly admit that I based this anticipation solely on the title. I rapidly learned that there are many sides to psychology of sex on the Internet, and Noonan's perspective--though interesting and valid--did not offer the insights I was hoping to gain. Noonan reviewed some of the important sexological topics of our day and discussed his complex systems approach to the study of sexuality. He addressed pornography, cybersex, and sexual expression on the Internet, but did not delve into issues surrounding individuals who use the Internet as a venue for meeting sex partners. Nevertheless, the material is certain to be of profound interest to sexologists who are considering researching Internet-based sexuality and sexual expression.

Morahan-Martin contributed another chapter of possible relevance to sex researchers in "Males, Females and the Internet." Much of the chapter focuses on the male domination of the Internet, both in terms of frequency of use and male-oriented content. Of greater interest is the section on linguistic and conversational differences between men and women online, as these are sure to influence some of the sexual expressions and sexual behaviors emanating from the Internet. The material presented in this chapter may be especially relevant as an historical point of comparison, as the book is already 3 years old and gender ratios on the Internet are constantly changing.

Wallace

Wallace's book is in many ways a contrast to Gackenbach's edited volume, but they have in common a dedication to discussing key issues of social behavior online. Part of the impressive readability of this text is due to the fact that Wallace carefully describes online behaviors by drawing comparisons to offline behaviors. She neatly interweaves discussions of online behavior with social science theories that may explain some Internet phenomena.

Of particular interest is Wallace's chapter on online personae and online impression management. This chapter discusses the mental pathways we tend to follow in forming our impression of others and managing others' impressions of ourselves. Naturally, the Internet presents obstacles to our usual impression formation and impression management, so our adaptable minds must find new pathways to follow. It is a fascinating look at how we present ourselves and how we perceive others when many of the standard social cues are deleted.

Of course, any discussion of impressions needs to be followed by a discussion of online masquerades and false identities. This is the stuff of Wallace's third chapter. Here, she discusses role-play games, which is where adolescents tend to learn how to project false online identities. Further, issues of gender-swapping and identity-changing in the Internet milieu are discussed--from both a positive and negative perspective.

From individual expressions, Wallace moves on to describe group dynamics and intergroup conflict and cooperation. Again Wallace addresses online games as one exemplar of Internet-based social interaction. She also describes online work environments and team-building approaches that can be implemented on the Internet. The section on intergroup conflict and cooperation is equally interesting. Throughout these discussions, Wallace maintains her steady optimism about human interaction on the web: Sure, it's got the potential for trouble, but there's a lot of good stuff out there, too.

Like Gackenbach, Wallace addresses the issues of flaming and fighting online (Chapter 6). As is the case throughout the text, the author neatly links online frustration and aggression to analogous environments offline. Additionally, she shows how the reduction in social cues and the waiting time required by asynchronous communication can contribute to aggression and conflict. The reduction in social cues is a necessarily repeating theme throughout this book, and is especially interesting in Chapter 7, "Liking and Loving on the Net: The Psychology of Interpersonal Attraction." Wallace elucidates some of the key dimensions on which we judge whether we are attracted to one another, and how those dimensions can be distorted in the online world. When one dimension is distorted, of course, others achieve an artificially inflated status, and those dimensions become the major variables that influence our online attractions.

When writing about the Internet, it is difficult to ignore pornography, and Wallace gives this topic its due. What drives us to look at online porn? How can we avoid exposure to it? How is online pornography related to aggression and violence? These questions are addressed, and Wallace is to be commended for separating this aspect of Internet-based sexuality from Internet-based interpersonal attraction.

Many of the gender issues discussed in Gackenbach's book make an appearance in Wallace's text as well. Like the chapter in Gackenbach, Wallace's chapter described differences between the sexes in language, discourse, power, interaction styles, and usage of the web. Wallace went a bit further, however, discussing social issues such as stereotyping, harassment, threats, and unisex online groups.

Online social support is the topic of Wallace's chapter, "Altruism on the Net: The Psychology of Helping." In particular, Wallace discusses the relatively comfortable home that many stigmatized groups have found on the web. The positive tone of her book continues throughout the final chapter, "Nurturing Life on the Internet."

Perhaps one could claim that books about the Internet are likely to be outdated next year, or next month. In the case of both of these books, I disagree. The specifics of the Internet may change (faster communication, more graphics, better quality of sound and video, new web sites), but the insights shared by Wallace and by Gackenbach et al. appear to stand the test of time quite well.

Reviewed by Mary McFarlane, PhD, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road NE, Mailstop E-44, Atlanta, GA, 30333; e-mail: [e-mail].