Psychological barriers associated with matriculation of African American students in predominantly white institutions.

An institution is responsible for the healthy development and achievement of its student body regardless of race or ethnicity. When students are accepted into an institution of higher education, the responsibility lies with the university to envelope, develop and graduate students, who are psychologically and academically sound, and in so doing, provide an atmosphere of inclusion and acceptance. Since the elimination of "dejure segregation", predominanly white institutions are responsible for educating a vast majority of minority students, particularly students of African American heritage. Healthy student development and successful matriculation must be evident in an institution's mission with evidence of multicultural initiatives. An institution must explore, refine and/or develop successful models of student development which are both cognitively and psychosocially adept and embrace such, in order to be productive and successful in its efforts to retain and graduate students of color minimizing and destroying barriers in the process. Studies indicate that African American students often shared many feelings of isolation, non-acceptance. and rejection in predominantly white institutions. The primary reasons supporting these feelings, are in many cases, the offices of Student Affairs lacking diversity, in terms of Administrators, Counselors and mentors/role models. In socialistic cultures, such as that of African Americans, it is important to be sensitive to those needs of African American Students. In order to overcome these concerns, Universities must focus on both the cognitive and psychosocial needs of these students. African American students are faced with barriers such as hidden racism. Alienation, unintentional acts of discrimination, intentional discrimination, forms of intimidation and problems associated with acquiring adequate financial aid. The experience of college should be one of inclusiveness and embracement, to enhance the total higher educational experience.

Studies indicate that African American students often feel isolated and alienated in predominantly White institutions (PWIs) and do not feel included in the college environment and community. As a result of these feelings African American students may have problems matriculating successfully. These findings suggest that African American students need support, inclusion and acceptance in order to fit in the mainstream college environment. African American students can excel in an environment, which promotes inclusion and acceptance, thus promoting an atmosphere of acceptance, which would be conducive to learning. When African American students are able to be a part of an institution, which promotes institutional warmness, they achieve at higher levels and successfully matriculate through their programs of study (Swchwitzer. Griffin, Ancis, & Thomas 1999).

The purpose of this paper is to explore the role of Student Affairs in the plethora of problems faced by minority students with particular emphasis on African American students. Allen, W. 1992: Hurtado, S. 1992; Townsend, L.1994 (as cited in Taylor, E. & Olswang, S. 1997) stated, " The elimination of de-jure segregation in higher education has resulted in a surge of minority enrollment in PWIs" (p.2). It is the writer's contention that once these students are enrolled in the university, it is the responsibility of the university to promote and maintain an environment to promote areas of development both cognitively and psychosocially. The writer will explore studies and analyze findings, which have been successful to this endeavor. Questions posed: 1). Does Student Affairs provide minority students with support needed for successful matriculation for program requirements? 2). Do PWIs embrace minority students relative to ethnicity?

Review Of Literature

Psychological Support Needs Of African American Students

Racism defined by Katz 1989 (as Reynolds & Pope 1994) as, "both prejudice against people of color and the political, social, and economic power to reinforce that prejudice. Racism always exists at individual. cultural, and institutional levels, which can be both conscious and unconscious" (p.2). It is the writer's opinion that the definition of racism is to exploring the many barriers which exists for African American students on college campuses, which are predominantly white. Racism, in most instances is related in terms relative to the psychological impacts on mental, physical and the psychological health of its contacts/victims (Reynolds & Pope 1994).

Minority students are faced with many barriers in their quest to obtaining academic and social acceptance, in their pursuit of attaining a college degree at PWI's. Problems associated with matriculation are inclusive of "blatant and subtle barriers" related to discriminatory practices (Feagin 1992). Barriers to obtaining a college education are inclusive of but not limited too: a) alienation, b) isolation, c) racism, d) discrimination e) intimidation, and f) problems associated with acquiring adequate financial aid.

In essence, one's experience in college should he indicative of a special time, "a rite of passage" so to speak, for those who have been fortunate with the grades and test entrance scores to have chosen a college path. The experiences that college should offer to every student regardless of ethnic background should be one of embracement and enveloping continuing development of personal, social, maturational and collective endeavors.

However, for those students who feel that they are not wanted, be it in the subtle glance of the eye, which indicates. "What are you doing here?" the loathsome look past one, when conversing with other members of the majority group indicating the "invisibility" of presence, the sudden quietness, which occurs upon approach or the intimidation experienced when attempting to converse with faculty members of the majority race, all can have a devastating impact on African American and other minority students (Feagin, J., Hernan, V. & Imani. N. 1996).

These acts of discrimination and campus racism, no matter how subtle, can cause enduring harm to the psyche, inclusive to evoking a lessessened self-esteem, underdeveloped personal identities, retarded cognitive and affective development, thereby, shaking confidence and leading to feelings associated with a sense of isolation and alienation, depression, dissonance and even at times the discontinuance of education. Having to endure such feelings, can present with repressed rage, anxiety and anger, which can result in psychopathology (Smith 1985: Williams & Williams-Morris 2000).

It is interesting to note that only approximately one-third to one-half of African American students receive degrees from PWI's even when indications exist that they are better prepared academically upon entrance, than their European American counterparts.

Schlossberg 1989 (as cited in Gossett & Cuyjet 1998) implied that "student's active involvement in college, where they are made to feel welcome and respected, can facilitate student development and increase retention "(p.1). Research indicates that students who are marginalized possess a desire or need to feel involved and valued in social as well as intellectual matters and development. directly impacting self worth (Gossett & Cuyjet 1998).

Fleming (1984) ascertained. "The task for black students on white campuses is to direct frustration into, not away from, academic activities; to challenge rather than retreat from unfairness into the classroom; to find constructive means of encouraging cheerful peer contact rather than mutual avoidance" (p.156). It is the writer's experience in working with African American students at PWIs that often times retreating still occurs. The writer can remember encouraging students to report perceived problems of unfairness, whether anomic or misconceptions. to the assistant dean or dean if resolution could not occur in any other venues, following the appropriate chain of command. African American students often would voice concern of future potential repercussion from majority faculty/staff members and retreat or completely leave the institution viewed as treating them unfairly, as if they had no voice. However, Sedlacek & Brooks (1976) indicated that. "Psychologically, the role of the black in generating change is full of conflict from within and without. The risk of summary dismissal ... and the subtle undermining of efforts are ever present" (p.137).

Literature revealed that African American students who had determination and confidence prior to initially entering PWIs were successful in efforts regarding matriculation. Also, DiCesare. Sedlacek, and Brooks 1972 (as cited in Sedlacek & Brooks 1976) indicated as a result of a study at the University of Maryland of demographically diverse African American students of mixed gender and socioeconomic status, indicated that African American students often remained in school, when they expected environments to be racially hostile, than those African American students who were less prepared to deal with racism. Other traits rendered to be successful for African Americans matriculating through institutions which were predominantly white were revealed as a result of data yielded from a study by Taylor & Olswang in (1997) and were inclusive of: a) strong sense of confidence, cultural pride and determination, b) adequate academic preparation and study skills and c) tolerance, friendliness, adaptability and courage. However, Fleming (1984) revealed that African American females in comparison to attending HBCUs vs. PWIs regarding goals relative to future aspirations and self esteem were lowered in both settings, but to a greater degree at PWIs.

Selected Models of Development

There are numerous racial identity models/theories in the United States which can be utilized in assisting African Americans as they progress through various stages of development when affirming or predicating their "Blackness" Cross 1995 (as cited in Hargrow 2001). Cross 1971 (as cited in Hargrow 2001) model of African American identity was one of the first models for African Americans, outlining progression from an identity that was of the dominant group to an identity which was African American with a transforming experience occurring. Janet Helms (1984) later expanded on the Cross model. Helms 1995 (as cited in Hargrow 2001) model of racial identity development expands "conceptualizations across multiple identity statuses" indicating that interpretations across identities which could be multiple in nature.

This model also serves as a framework of noting events, which are significant emotionally to bias, and stereotypes, which were foundationally racist, evoking resultant tensions, and emotions, which occur relative to dissensions between Blacks and whites. This model embraces four such stages or statuses for identity for African Americans and six such statuses for Caucasians. The four Black statutes are: "a) pre-encounter, b) encounter, c) immersion-emersion and d) integration" (p. 2). The writer does not totally embrace the Helms model of identity development, given experiences of her family background, childhood experiences and perceived educational goals/aspirations. However the Helms model is often used as a framework in conceptualizing or exploring interpersonal, cognitive and emotional designs or patterns of African Americans (Hargrow 2001).

Parham 1989 (as cited in Kmoives & Woodard 1996) indicated the reality of Black people or students from adolescence to early adulthood having to struggle and confront developmental issues, directly related to their race. Parham described this process of "recycling". The writer can seethe detrimental effects that "recycling" could have specifically on African American students who attend predominantly white institutions.

In contrast, Atkinson, Morton, & Sue 1989 (as cited in Hargrow 2001) maintained that models can reflect minority as well as majority use for people of color regardless of ethnic or racial background. Sodowski, Kwan and Pannu 1995 (as cited in Hargrow 2001) developed a model of racial identity reflective of Asian Americans developmentally.

The writer also embraces psychosocial theories that are relative to majority/minority student and adult development such as Erick Erikson 1959 (as cited in Kmoives & Woodard 1996) indicating that development progresses over eight developmentally linked sequential stages inclusive of: "a) Trust vs. Mistrust, b) Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt, c) Initiative vs. Guilt, d) Industry vs. Inferiority, e) Identity vs. Role Confusion, f) Intimacy vs. Isolation, g) Generativity vs. Stagnation and d) Integrity vs. Despair" (pp. 165166). It is significant that the stages of identity vs. role confusion and intimacy vs. isolation are the stages, which occur during adolescences and are reflective of the traditional college student (Komives & Woodard 1996). Marcia 1966 (as cited in Kmoives & Woodard 1996) ventured to expand on Erickson stage of Identity vs. Role Confusion-characterizing late adolescence. Chickering & Reisser 1993 (as cited in Kmoives & Woodard 1996) further expanded Erikson's stages of Identity vs. Role Confusion and Intimacy vs. Isolation, noting seven vectors, which build upon each other incorporating "complexity, stability and integration" (p.169).

Chickering & Reisser 1993 (as cited in Kmovies & Woodard 1996) noted the following stages: "a) developing competence, b) managing emotions, c) moving through autonomy toward interdependence, d) developing mature interpersonal relationship, e) establishing identity, f) developing purpose and g) developing integrity" (p.168). The writer stresses the importance of complete development of minority students not in isolation to racial development. Chickering denotes the puissant influences which educational environments possess, notably impacting student development. Chickering ascertains (as cited in Kmoives & Woodard 1996) movement through the seven vectors, inclusive of: "a) institutional objective, b) institutional size, c) faculty-students interaction, d) curriculum, c) teaching practices, f) diverse student communities and g) student affairs programs and services" (p.169).

A model, which might be instrumental to institutions in general in evoking positive changes, is the Cultural Environment Transitions Model, which portrays and deals effectively with institutions as they work through issues relative to multiculturalism. This model assumes that organizational growth will occur as experiences and interactions occur with people from different cultures, while struggling with required and necessary changes in policies and administrative procedures (Boatwright & Manning 1991).

Kmoives & Woodard (1996) indicated the importance of psychosocial theories in guiding students through developmental and psychosocial problems. These theories also guide or enhance program development of the institution and also guide policy formation.

Student affairs would be amiss if much time and emphasis was not utilized in selecting appropriate theories for student development.

Role of Student Affairs Officials

A goal of student affairs is to work toward creating a multicultural campus environment, so defined by Reynolds & Pope as:

   A community in which significant time,
   attention, and resources, both human
   and monetary, are dedicated to creating
   openness to all cultures and peoples and
   to eradicating social injustice. This
   commitment is shown through an inclusive
   mission statement, a strict antidiscrimination
   policy, extensive recruitment
   and retention efforts, and programs,
   curricula, and activities that create
   an awareness and celebration of
   diversity (p.2).

For necessary changes to occur in embracing students of color and in providing holistically for their social and cognitive needs, necessary leadership must be evident in Student Affairs/student personnel services to evoke changes. The vice president of student affairs with sufficient understanding of student development needs and specific goals must exhibit leadership expressly for students of color. Communication must occur effectively to the president and the board of trustees for positive changes to occur utilizing effective strategies (Welch 1986).

Student Affairs Officials must not only provide consideration of academic needs to ethnic minority students but also to the myriad of problems associated with social and emotional growth. In order to retain African American students and students from various ethnic groups, barriers must be minimized or eliminated which would most certainly impact attrition, invoke a sense of belonging to and involvement in institutions that are predominantly white (Credle, K. & Dean, C.J. 1991).

A concerted effort must occur by all departments inclusive of Student Affairs and constituents of the predominantly white institution to recognize the unique and special needs of minority students of African descent inclusive of: a) recognition and responding to affective and social development, b) early mentoring experiences of same minority status, c) assisting with academic skills to promote retention, d) guidance through the organizational structure, e) provision of guidance in pursuing positive career choices, d) establishing rapport which would hopefully build trust and prevent anemic thinking, e) exploration of the schools mission and philosophy in embracing diversity and f) preparation for future needs beyond the institution (Credle, K & Dean, C. J. 1991 & Fleming 1984).

Interpersonal associations, a sense of belonging and acceptance, social interactions and social adjustments to the college experience at PWI's impact attrition rates. Evidence exists impacting the necessity of sustaining and nurturing the intellectual and interpersonal components of the ego (Fleming 1984). Student Affairs professionals must utilize or develop models which will provide them guidance in helping to assist African American students and other minority students inclusive of dimensions relative to sociocultural, psychological and psychosocial aspects which will provide a holistic assessment, comprising developmental processes, encompassing academic and required social adjustment skills for students of color and not wholly sustaining a Eurocentric base. In essence it is indicative that Student Affairs and Academic Affairs work together to evoke culturally sensitive models of student development (Bourne-Bowie 2000).

Manning and Boatwright (1991) stated the following sentiments regarding the role of student affairs in their efforts relative to incorporating multicultural initiatives. "Student affairs educators frustrated with the slow pace of change toward multiculturalism are facing the realization that racism ... and other forms of oppression are cyclic and recurrent unless approached through ethical, developmental and educational initiatives" (p369).

Analysis

Data analyzed whether of extensive comparative studies such as Jacqueline's Fleming's (1984) of Black and White college students on white and Black college campuses or of other qualitative research studies reviewed, in corresponding literature or brief reflections made by the writer when conversing with African American students when approached by the writer, regarding perceived problems of African American students: extant and extensive evidence exists of multiple problems associated with acceptance and matriculation of Black students on college campuses which are predominantly white.

Fleming's (1994) indicated that PWIs were " less likely to provide the emotional and social support systems essential for healthy self-development" (p.67). Thus developing a positive self-image, a healthy development of identity with solid intact egos often is amiss on PWIS.

Review of the literature revealed the need for multicultural diversity on campuses. which are predominantly white. The role of Student Affairs professionals is a major one in promoting multicultural initiatives embracing diversity. Student Affairs must take a proactive role in promoting racial harmony and in exploring activities, initiatives and student development models promoting holistic venues. Reactive approaches would not alleviate negative impacts of racism and would further enhance the devastation, which occurs with associated negative acts. Proactive approaches would promote realization of minority student development, allowing future dreams, educational and developmental goals and aspirations to be realized (Terrell 1988). Terrell (1988) stated, "Colleges and universities need to promote recognition, understanding, and appreciation of other cultures through student, faculty and staff programs that highlight cultural diversity issues"(p.83).

Data yielded from a study by Taylor & Olswang (1997) indicated that in order for African American students to be successful at institutions that are predominantly white contributing factors were both institutional and personal. African American students that encountered successes were those that maintained adequate financial support, which correlated with sufficient time to study, and also allowed time for the involvement in activities, which occurred on campus if so desired. African American students that were successful at PWIs also conveyed a sense of confidence, were amicable and cordial and could adapt to a racially homogenous mix.

According to Reynolds & Pope (1994) that in order for PWIs to embrace minority students and promote multicultural initiatives, long range strategies must be inclusive of correctly changing: a) mission statements, b) institutional structures, c) practices associated with hiring, d) curriculum, e) policies, f) curriculum and programs and ;) services offered.

Recommendations/Conclusion

Historically higher education in the United States has conveyed exclusionary and segregated practices relative to minority student's acceptance and attendance at white colleges and universities.

Evidence exists of the need for multicultural initiatives in higher education embracing all ethnic groups. Substantial evidence exists of hate crimes increasing 15.5% on 481 college campuses of five thousand or more students since 1998. Data revealed that in 1997 reported crimes of hate encompassed 155 such acts and in 1998 reported crimes of hate totaled 179 heinous acts. (Chronicle of Higher Education 2000) In light of the increase in hate crimes, evidence exists for the need of multicultural initiatives and diversity training to faulty, staff and students with tolerance and embracement of other cultures and ethnic groups with evidence of such principles incorporated throughout curriculum from freshmen orientation to graduation from professional schools.

Student Affairs officials /representatives are in prime positions of power to evoke changes in support for minority students especially African Americans in PWIs. Literature reveals that historically Black colleges and universities (HBCUs) have relished in a higher success rate of graduating African American students, in part, due to an environment of nurturance, like mentors and a variety of noted role models encompassing both faculty and administration, financial aid which is merit based, various cultural events and an environment which is free of discrimination and racial harassment (Taylor & Olswang 1997).

HBCUs now enroll approximately twenty-five percent of African American students, indicating that now most African American students attend PWIs. Approximately forty percent of African American students who enter HBCUs leave with college degrees. Forty-four percent of African American students vs. fifty-four percent of white students who attend PWIs leave with college degrees. In essence even though most African American students are now attending college and doing so at PWIs, graduation is not realized. Matriculation and graduation rates at PWIs of African American students must improve. Literature indicates that positive effects exist at HBCUs in student development, encompassing cognitive, social and interpersonal areas, which is not the case at PWIs (Taylor & Olswang 1997).

In essence, models of student and identity development in PWIs must change in order to embrace African American students. which are psychologically, socially and academically sound. Student Affairs professionals in PWIs must work untiringly. in a morally conscious manner to assume responsibility in assisting with models of development, which render success in graduating students of color. African American students cannot lay aside their ethnicity, once entering the doors of PWIs, therefore; schools that are predominantly white cannot negate the importance thereof (Taylor & Olswang 1997). Sedlacek & Brooks (1976) indicated the necessity and overall healthy attitude conveyed with expressions of cultural and racial identities for society as a whole, indicating that people of minority standing has "the pervasive racial or cultural 'identity' issue to deal with," and likewise not negating the importance of majority people also dealing with issues related to self-confidence and identity.

It has been the writer's history to successfully matriculate through schools and colleges, which have been predominantly white since early adolescence. The writer has since accepted a teaching position at a PWI, although never having had the opportunity to work in Student Affairs. In listening to African American students voice concerns at hand in an impartial manner, the writer has experienced much grief and concern over some of the problems related by African American students which have recently occurred with successful matriculation. The writer either cannot remember, since many years have gone by or either she was better prepared to handle problems associated with matriculation especially from a psychological venue. It is the writer's contention that predominantly white institutions must assume responsibility for successful and healthy developmental growth as well assisting students who are African American realize educational aspirations and ambitions once they enter a PWI.

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Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Dr. James V. Wright. Department of Counselor, Leadership and Special Education. P.O. Box 244023. Montgomery, AL 36124-4023: Email: [e-mail]

Debra F. Lett. School of Nursing and James V. Wright, Ed.D., Professor and Head. Counselor, Leadership, and Special Education, Auburn University Montgomery.