Preventing the career advancement of professional women.

Women represent the majority of entrants into the leisure service field. According to Bialeschki (1992), more women than men are graduating from undergraduate leisure studies curricula. Despite this pattern, recent studies have shown that women remain underrepresented in upper-administrative and managerial positions (Arnold & Shinew, 1996; Cousineau & Bolla, 1989; Smale & Frisby, 1989). For example, Arnold & Shinew (1996) examined female representation among middle- and senior-management positions in Illinois public recreation agencies and found that women comprised 54 percent of middle-management positions, but a low percentage of women occupied senior-management positions (less than 11 percent).

The lack of female representation among upper-management positions is not limited to the field of leisure services. Using the accounting profession as an example, a recent study found that 12 percent of the partners of smaller firms were women, and only five percent of the partners of larger firms were women (AICPA, 1994). Similarly, the Glass Ceiling Commission found that although women and minorities make up 57 percent of the work force, 97 percent of the senior managers at the largest service and industrial firms are white, and roughly the same percentage are male (Parshall, 1995).

The purpose of this research update is to examine the most recent literature related to the issue of female underrepresentation. More specifically, the purpose of this research update is threefold. First, we examine common promotional barriers that women encounter in the workplace. Similar barriers are reported by women both within and outside the leisure field, thus indicating that this is an issue for women in a variety of professions. Second, we examine the role that family responsibilities play in women's career advancement. Balancing the obligations of the home environment as well as those of the workplace can be problematic for many women. Third, we examine the role that barriers have had on the career advancement of women, as evidenced by the lack of female representation in upper-administrative positions. We conclude by reviewing the strategies that have been suggested in the literature that address the barriers professional women encounter during career advancement.

Common Barriers

Catalyst (1994), a woman's advocacy group, reported that the most common barriers for women include concerns about their suitability for leadership positions because of stereotyping, exclusion from informal networks of communication, and an absence of effective management training. Other common obstacles include the failure of upper-level managers to be accountable for the development and advancement of women, inadequate appraisal and compensation systems, inflexibility in defining work schedules, and the absence of programs that help employees balance work and non-work responsibilities.

According to Powell (1988), stereotyping is a prevalent barrier for female managers. Kirchler (1992) found blatant stereotypes when examining the obituaries from deceased male and female managers. Analysis of the contents found that men were described as "intelligent," "knowledgeable," and "experienced." Women managers, on the other hand, were portrayed as "adorable," "likable supervisors," and "highly committed workers." Although these characteristics are no less desirable, they are perceived to be inferior in the workplace.

Despite conflicting research findings, women are often perceived as not being as committed to their jobs as male managers. For example, Powell (1988) found that women managers were more committed to their jobs than were male managers. Other studies have reported that professional women were less attitudinally committed than men, whereas women in nonprofessional, blue-collar positions were more committed (Cohen, 1992).

Often times a lack of training and development programs has been cited as barriers toward promotion. For example, Rusaw (1994) assessed the role of training and development in the careers of 14 female administrators in federal agencies in the United States. She found that training had a limited impact on their professional mobility, and their promotions were restricted to lower-level jobs. Whitecraft (1990) assessed the perceptions of women managers in the largest state agencies in Texas and found that women did not feel they received sufficient management training before assuming their job responsibilities. Moreover, they were less satisfied with their participation in decision-making and with their chances for advancement.

Van Velsor and Hughes (1990) investigated gender differences associated with experiential learning. They surveyed and interviewed 100 female managers and 189 male managers who occupied similar positions and asked them to report on events that had been influential to their role as managers. The researchers found that women managers tended to focus on their identity in the organization, finding their niche, and their integration into the environment. Conversely, male managers appeared to focus on the mastery of specific business skills. Van Velsor and Hughes concluded that these differences may have arisen because women have less organizational experience and not as dear an understanding about their role in the organization.

The barriers women face regarding career promotions are not limited to the workplace. For many women, the home environment offers its own set of obstacles that must be overcome. For example, many women experience the "second shift" syndrome (Hochschild, 1989), where the first shift is paid employment, and the second shift is family responsibilities. "Dual career" women, who must deal with responsibilities both at home and at work (Schor, 1990), find balancing their professional and personal lives difficult, and many find it is impossible to be successful in both arenas. Perhaps for this reason, recent studies reflect that women are defining success differently than their male counterparts. For example, according to a survey by the executive recruiting firm Robert Haff and Associates (1995), 82 percent of the professional career women interviewed reported they would prefer a job with flexible hours, more family time, and slower advancement over grueling careers with more rapid advancement Further, Aburdene and Naisbitt (1992) found that for most women, a career was not a methodical rise to power. Rather, many women realize the hardship of "doing it all" and find alternative ways to define individual success. In terms of male and female comparisons, Jacobs (1992) asked respondents to rank the importance of five aspects of their job. Both males and females ranked "meaningful work" as the most important aspect of their job, while "chances for advancement" and "high income" were ranked second and third, respectively. Despite this similarity, the mean ranking for "meaningful work" was significantly higher for women, and the importance attached to "high income" was significantly higher for men.

The Lack of Female Representation

The number of women employed in leisure services is growing (Henderson & Bialeschki, 1990), and the majority of students graduating from leisure studies curricula is female (Bialeschki, 1992). Given that this has been the trend for some time, it would be expected that there would be more equal gender representation among middle- and top-management positions. However, as previously mentioned, studies have shown that women remain underrepresented in upper-management positions within our field (Arnold & Shinew, 1996; Henderson & Bialeschki, 1990).

When examining career-advancement issues, Arnold and Shinew (1996) surveyed 148 male and female middle managers in public leisure services. When asked to list the "three most important obstacles or problems facing you at this point in your career," the most common issues reported by women included competing in a male-dominated profession, the inability to crack the glass ceiling, lack of female role models, exclusion from formal and informal networks, and lack of flexible work options. Respondents were also asked to indicate barriers they had encountered. Women reported that their gender, gender differences in management style, and gender discrimination were obstacles. Several women reported they did not desire another promotion during their career. When asked why, women cited too much family and work stress, too much of a time commitment, and satisfaction with current position as reasons for not wanting another promotion during their career.

Henderson and Bialeschki (1995) surveyed a nationwide sample of female practitioners in the leisure service field. Their study examined career patterns and career satisfaction, equity issues, and family situations. In terms of barriers, approximately 64 percent of the women said they had been discriminated against because of their gender while working in the leisure services field. 53 percent of the women indicated they had experienced sexual harassment. Other barriers included the lack of female mentors and exclusion from informal and formal male networks (Henderson & Bialeschki, 1993).

Frisby and Brown (1991) interviewed 30 women managers in leisure organizations and examined the forces that shaped their careers. The barriers reported by women were consistent with other findings. Specific barriers noted by the women managers included career interruptions, the lack of mentors and role models, occupational segregation, discrimination (gender and sexual), exclusion from informal networks, gender stereotyping, gender differences in management style, and personal sacrifices.

Frisby (1992) developed perhaps the most comprehensive framework for understanding factors that impact the career development of women in the field of leisure services. Based upon their interviews with women managers in public recreation agencies, they described several factors that influence women and their careers.

Some of these factors included legislative factors (pay equity, gender discrimination, and sexual harassment laws), socioeconomic factors, organizational factors (exclusion from networks, flexible work options, paternal leave and day-care issues), professional organizations (dealing with a predominately male environment), individual factors (seeking a balance between work and family responsibilities), and family factors (lack of equal sharing of child rearing and household responsibilities for married women). The comprehensiveness of their findings provides insight into the complexity of this issue.

The literature clearly illustrates that there is consistency in the barriers reported by women. Moreover, there is consistency both in and outside the leisure field. Mize (1992) argued that women encounter barriers, in part, because of the mixed messages they receive regarding what it takes to get promoted. For example, she claimed that 16 years ago Harvard Business Review reported that women needed to become more assertive and more independent before they could succeed in business. Sixteen years later, Fortune magazine reported that many corporate men view corporate women as being too shrill, too aggressive, and too hard-edged. Frisby (1992) claimed that women often encounter barriers because society operates in a male work model and does not take into account the experiences from a woman's perspective. For example, she found that women felt penalized when they took time from work to have children or when they opted for flexible work schedules. Issues such as these are problematic for women who are striving to advance their careers (Mize, 1992).

Implications

Given the consistency of the research findings, it seems appropriate to review recent strategies that have been suggested in the literature. The recommendations address and confront barriers that women encounter in the workplace. These tactics can be divided into three different levels: organizational policy, management, and employees.

Organizational Policies

Henderson and Bialeschki (1993) recommended that organizations adhere to a philosophy that acknowledges the achievements of both women and men in terms of pay increases, promotions, autonomy, and participation in decision making. In addition, they suggested that organizations conduct critical self-evaluations for possible overt or covert discrimination policies and/or attitudes.

Frisby and Brown (1991) recommended that organizations examine the work-family interface and address these issues within human resource development policies. For example, they stated that childcare and domestic issues should not directly target women, because they reinforce the traditional norm that these are women's responsibilities. Policies should actively encourage co-parenting to relieve the dual-career burden that most women face. Moreover, Thompson (1997) found that the current generation is placing more emphasis on a balanced lifestyle between work and family. Frisby and Brown (1991) suggested that organizations take this desire for a balanced lifestyle into account when developing human resource policies.

Arnold and Shinew (1996) suggested that a review of the organization's recruitment and selection procedures is needed to determine its impact on employees, particularly women. Appropriate affirmative action policies and recruitment strategies help to ensure diversity at various levels of the organization, including senior-management positions. Further, they recommended that the actions of other organizations that have encouraged and facilitated the promotion and career advancement of women to senior-management positions be bench-marked (Arnold & Shinew, 1996). For example, Prudential has instituted a successful program that connects managers' compensation to their ability to recruit and promote qualified women and minorities into senior-management positions.

Management

An examination of management training programs is needed to ensure that women are progressing within organizations (Arnold & Shinew, 1996). Effective in-service training and development programs can be useful in helping women feel better prepared for senior-management positions. Further, it is essential for managers to understand the needs of women in terms of feedback and opportunities for training and development (Henderson and Bialeschki, 1993): Managers need to learn about career development patterns (balancing work, family, and leisure) and personnel practices (flextime, job-sharing, teleconferencing and telecommuting) that may help women become and remain successful in an organization. Henderson (1992) recommended that supervisors provide training to assist employees in balancing their lives. For example, there is a need for progressive personnel policies such as flexible scheduling and child-care opportunities that allow women to integrate their work and nonwork responsibilities.

Arnold & Shinew (1996) recommended that quality mentoring programs be instituted in leisure service organizations. For example, Johnson Wax has implemented a program that identifies women who are considered "high potential" and includes them in a formal mentoring program (Vincent & Seymour, 1995). Building on this suggestion, female mentors can be important role models in the career advancement of their female protegees.

Employees

Henderson (1992) recommended that women should find support networks, given the male-dominated work environment. Women need to develop a network of individuals who have a personal interest in each other's career and who have the ability to influence their promotion. The development of networks may lead to promotions and new job opportunities--and further, may result in breaking the glass ceiling for some women. Henderson also recommended that women have a responsibility to address issues of discrimination--both within their organizations and at the individual level. In addition, women need to enlist their spouses or partners in helping with home-centered tasks, such as housework and child-care responsibilities.

Arnold & Shinew (1996) found that some leisure service organizations have instituted alternative work schedules for their employees. Interestingly, these flexible work schedules were commonly initiated by employees. In one example, a group of four women professionals created a "flexible work option" package that detailed how to institute alternative work schedules within their respective leisure service agencies. They presented their plan to their supervisors, and it was accepted by the organization. As a result, many employees have taken advantage of flexible work schedules in order to meet the demands placed on employees who need to balance work and family obligations.

This research update has examined recent literature related to barriers that women often encounter with regard to promotion and career advancement. As evident by the review, the most common barriers reported included various forms of discrimination (e.g., gender, sexual, and salary), lack of female role models or mentors, exclusion from formal and informal networks, and the lack of flexible work options. The leisure service field is not unique to these forms of barriers. Nevertheless, it is the responsibility of policy-makers, management, and individual employees of leisure services to work together to eliminate these barriers for women in the workplace.

References

Aburdene, P. & Naisbitt, J. (1992). Megatrends for women: From liberation to leadership. New York: Random House, Inc.

AICPA (1994). Survey on women's status and work/family issues in public accounting. New York: AICPA.

Arnold, M. & Shinew, K. (1996). Differing viewpoints between male and female managers. Management Strategy, 20, 1,8.

Bialeschki, M.D. (1992). The status of professional preparation curricula in parks, recreation, and leisure studies in the United States and Canada. NRPA Congress Leisure Research Symposium, Cinn. OH.

Catalyst. (1994). Cracking the glass ceiling: Strategies for success. New York, NY.

Cohen, A. (1992). Antecedents or organizational commitment across occupational groups: A meta-analysis. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 13, 539-558.

Cousineau, V. & Bolla, P (1989). Leisure studies graduates and their careers: A follow-up study at the University of Ottawa. Journal of Applied Recreation Research, 15, (1), 25-40.

Frisby, W. (1992). Women in leisure service management: Alternative definitions of career success. Loisir & Societe/Society & Leisure, 15(1), 155-174.

Frisby, W., & Brown, B.A. (1991). The balancing act: Women leisure service managers. Journal of Applied Recreation Research, 16(4), 297-321.

Henderson, K.A. (1992). Being female in the park and recreation profession in the 1990s: Issues and challenges. Journal of Park and Recreation Administration, 10(2), 15-30.

Henderson, K.A., & Bialeschki, M.D. (1990). The feminization of the leisure services profession: Explanations and implications. Journal of Park and Recreation Administration, 8(1), 1-12.

Henderson, K.A. & Bialeschki, M.D. (1993). Professional women & equity issues in the 1990s. Parks & Recreation, 28,(3), 54-59.

Henderson, K. & Bialeschki, M. (1995). Career development and women in the leisure services profession. Journal of Park and Recreation Administration, 13 (1), 26-42.

Hochschild, A. (1989). The second shift: working parents and the revolution at home. New York, New York, Viking Penguin, Inc.

Jacobs, J.A. (1992). Women's entry into management: Trends in earnings, authority, and values among salaried managers. Administrative Science Quarterly, 37(2), 282-298.

Kirchler, E. (1992). Adorable woman, expert man: Changing gender images of women and men in management, European Journal of Social Psychology, 22, 363-373.

Mize, S. (1992). Shattering the glass ceiling. Training and Development, 46, (1), 60-62.

Parshall, G. (1995). Corporate America's white, male hierarchy. U.S. News and World Report, March 27, 1995, p. 8.

Powell, G.N. (1988). Women and men in management London: Sage Publications.

Robert Haff and Associates (1995, July 30). The glass ceiling of business and feminist perceptions. The Waterville Morning Sentinel, pp. A1, A10.

Rusaw, C. (1994). Mobility for federal women managers: Is training enough? Public Personnel Management, 23,(2), 25/62.

Schor, J. (1990). The overworked American: The unexpected decline of leisure. Harper Collins Publishing.

Smale, B. & Frisby, W. (1989) The availability of job outcomes for recreation graduates: A comparison of those who have stayed in the field with those who have not. Journal of Applied Recreation Research, 15,(2), 113-124.

Thompson, R. (1997). Job-hunting students seek balance. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 3 (1), 2.

Van Velsor, E. & Hughes, M. (1990). Gender differences in the development of managers: How women managers learn from experiences. American Express Foundation, New York, New York.

Vincent, A. & Seymour, J. (1995). Profile of women mentors: a national survey. SAM Advanced Management Journal, 3, 4-10.

Whitecraft, C. (1990). Gender differences and public sector managers: Women's perceptions of equality in state government. International Communication Association Convention, Dublin, Ireland.

RELATED ARTICLE: Research Into Action: Barriers to Women's Career Advancement

Research Into Action is published monthly by the society of Park and Recreation Educators, National Recreation and Park Association. As an accompaniment to "Research Update," its goal is to turn research findings into field action by highlighting management strategies. Founding editors are Dr. Ruth Russell and Dr. Daniel D. McLean, Department of Recreation and Park Administration, Indiana University.

Introduction

More women than men are graduating from undergraduate leisure studies curricula; however, recent studies show that women remain under-represented in upper-administrative positions in the leisure services field. The review of studies in this month's Research Update examined this discrepancy according to common job and non-job barriers.

Impact of the Research

The most common barriers women encounter in gaining leadership positions in the leisure services field are of two sorts. First, are the barriers experienced on the job. These include being perceived as not as committed to their jobs as male managers, exclusion from informal networks of communication, and an absence of effective management training. A second category of barriers is home responsibility, which for many women inflicts the "second-shift" syndrome. That is, the first shift is paid employment, and the second shift of work is unpaid family duty. Career interruptions for family responsibilities also serve as a barrier to advancement.

How to Use This Research

Numerous recommendations for using these findings are included in the Research Update article. These include:

1. Organization Policies

a. Adhere to a philosophy that acknowledges the achievements of both women and men in terms of pay increases, promotions, autonomy, and participation in decision-making.

b. Conduct critical self-evaluations for possible overt and/or covert discrimination policies and/or attitudes in the agency.

c. Address work-family issues for both women and men within human resource development policies.

d. Review recruitment and selection procedures to determine their impact on female employees.

e. Benchmark the actions of other organizations that have facilitated the career advancement of women to senior-management positions.

2. Considerations for Managers of Female Employees

a. Provide in-service development programs for women in senior-management positions.

b. Learn more about career-development patterns of female employees.

c. Institute quality mentoring programs.

3. Considerations for Female Employees

a. Find support networks.

b. Don't hesitate to address issues of discrimination within the organization.

c. Enlist spouse or partner to help with home-centered tasks.

For More Information

Henderson, K. and Bialeschki, M. (1995). Career development and women in the leisure services profession. Journal of Park and Recreation Administration, 13(1), 26-42.

Dr. Margaret L. Arnold is an assistant professor in the Department of Recreation and Leisure Studies at the State University of New York at Cortland Dr. Kimberly J. Shinew is an assistant professor in the Department of Leisure Studies at the University of Illinois.

Research Update is edited by Dr. Irma O'Dell of Southern Illinois University at Carbondale.