Preservice teachers' perceived barriers to the implementation of a multicultural curriculum.

This study investigated preservice teachers' perceived barriers for implementing multicultural curriculum with preservice teachers as they began their teacher education program. Preservice teachers (n = 68) were asked to identify the inherent barriers that may prevent the integration of anti-bias curriculum. It has been suggested that the study of beliefs may be a significant psychological construct for teacher effectiveness research. Many studies have investigated the role of teacher beliefs and few would disagree that the beliefs teachers hold influence them and affect their teaching practices. To determine barriers, beliefs were analyzed and themes were identified: Difficulty Discussing Sensitive Topics (including Religion in the Classroom and Creating Controversy); Policies and Practices Detrimental to Diversity (including Geography and Federal, State, and School Regulations); Difficulty Implementing Diversity Curriculum (including Developing Curriculum and Teaching Strategies, Time Constraints, and Financial Constraints); and Inability to Recognize and Accept Diversity (including Society, Teachers, Parents, and Children).

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Teacher education programs have a responsibility to prepare preservice teachers for working with diverse populations and implementing an effective multicultural curriculum. The goal of education in the United States has been described as a "multicultural experiment unique in the history of the world: A democratic society attempting to forge peaceful and productive communities with shared interests, while at the same time honoring particular ethnic, racial, and cultural characteristics, traditions, histories, and languages" (Hill, Carjuzaa, Arambura, & Baca, 1993, p. 260). Needless to say, this is a challenging goal. Kea and Bacon (2000) stated that the achievement of this goal is not only unattainable but that teacher education has limited ideas and methods for the successful realization of this goal.

The questions which guided this study included: What are preservice teachers' perceived barriers for implementing a multicultural and anti-bias curriculum with diverse groups of children? What are preservice teachers beliefs about the difficulty associated with bringing a diversity curriculum to the classroom? Teachers' knowledge-base and prior experiences help to create individual assumptions and values about diversity. These perceived barriers are a reflection of their individual attitudes, beliefs, experiences, and skills. For this reason, the present study aimed to identify the perceived attitudes and skills with which teachers would enter the classroom by asking preservice teachers to identify the perceived barriers for implementing a diversity curriculum.

In this article, the relationship between teacher beliefs and teacher practices in the diverse classroom will be explored. First, the quality of teacher education preparation programs in preparing students to work with diverse classrooms will be presented. Second, a summary of the role of teacher beliefs in the classroom will be discussed. Third, the methodology and the development of themes will be presented. Finally, conclusions about the perceived barriers will be considered.

Review of Literature

At the end of the year 2000, children of color comprised one-third of all students enrolled in public schools and it is projected that by the year 2020 this figure will increase to 40% (Cushner, McClelland, & Stafford, 1996). Although the increasing diversity among populations of children reflects a significant change, diversity is not limited to racial composition. Changing family composition, socioeconomic status, ethnicity, religion, and varied abilities of children have an effect on society's expectation of what should be included in the school experience (Garibaldi, 1992). Acknowledgment of these changing demographics has resulted in a great deal of attention focused on how to best prepare preservice teachers for entrance into the diverse classroom.

Changing Demographics of Students and the Response of Teachers

The majority of prospective teachers are from backgrounds with limited exposure to diversity. In fact, 95% of elementary school teachers are middle-class, Caucasian females (Zimpher & Ashburn, 1989). To be successful in a diverse classroom, preservice teachers must become culturally sensitive. Teachers are working with increasingly diverse populations of children from a variety of racial, cultural, ethnic, linguistic, economic backgrounds, and diverse family types with varying customs, traditions, and histories (Hill, Carjuzaa, Aramburo, & Baca, 1993). The culture of teachers will vary from the children they teach. Teacher education programs are often challenged to transform the preservice teachers' culturally isolated background in order to become culturally sensitive to students with whom they are not acquainted with their students' back grounds or communities. Additionally, teachers may have preconceived ideas about teaching diverse populations based on their unique socialization process and their previous experiences. These processes influence attitudes and beliefs. The perceived obstacles for teaching a diverse curriculum are imbedded in these beliefs and attitudes.

Interestingly, as the population of children is becoming more diverse, teachers entering the profession continue to reflect majority culture (Villegas, 1991). Therefore, the culture of teachers will contrast from the culture of the students they teach. This realization is important because what teachers say, perceive, believe, and think can support or thwart students (Nel, 1992). Beliefs influence how teachers may teach (Kagan, 1992) and how they understand multiculturalism (Sleeter, 1992). This poses a problem as teachers entering the workforce are of the majority whereas the population of students is becoming increasingly more diverse. Because there is greater likelihood that teachers will be working with students whose cultural backgrounds differ greatly from their own (Dilworth, 1992; Fox & Gay, 1995), it is of great importance that teachers become aware of individual cultural perspectives and that they have an opportunity to reflect on various forms of diversity. Additionally, most preservice teachers are prepared to work effectively with only one socioeconomic group--the middle class--as well as only one culture--the mainstream or dominant culture (Cannella & Reiff, 1994; Gollnick & Chinn, 1998). It is important to reflect on both personal assumptions as well as developing an acceptance for the various cultural perspectives. America's schools have been influenced by a lifetime of experiences and observations.

Teacher Education Programs and Teaching in the Diverse Classroom

The preparation of early childhood educators to work in multicultural settings is a critical issue in the preparation of prospective teachers who are prepared to enter into the ever increasingly diverse school setting. In 1979, the National Council for the Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE), an organization responsible for the development of criteria defining quality programs, adopted a statement for the inclusion of a diversity component of the teacher certification program:

   Provision should be made for instruction in multicultural education in
   teacher education in teacher education programs. Multicultural education
   should receive attention in courses, seminars, directed readings,
   laboratory and clinical experiences, practicum, and other types of field
   experiences (NCATE, 1982, p.4).

This requirement has been strengthened and reaffirmed in recent NCATE guidelines.

In a survey of 59 accreditation reports, Gollnick (1992) found only eight (13.6%) of the institutions to be in full compliance of the multicultural education components. Grant (1994) concluded that multicultural education is not typically integrated in a thorough, consistent manner across the program requirements. Therefore, it is not surprising that many classroom teachers do not feel prepared for diversity. In one survey of teachers asked to consider their level of comfort working in diverse classrooms and developing a multicultural curriculum, only 20% reporting feeling prepared (The National Center for Educational Statistics, 1999).

There is a range of research focusing on the preparation of teachers to work in multicultural settings (Artiles & McClafferty, 1998; Nieto, 2000; Sleeter, 1992; Solomon, 1995). However, there is limited agreement among teacher education programs regarding the preparation of teachers for working with diverse populations. Preparation to work in multicultural and multiethnic environments requires an acknowledgment and acceptance of individual differences. Society was founded on respect for individual differences. In response to this individual orientation, one would expect public schools to promote a sense of `educational equity' for each student (Cannella & Reiff, 1994). However, research suggests that many undergraduate programs in teacher education fail to prepare teachers to enter into these highly diverse classrooms (Larke, Wiseman, & Bradley, 1990). Many teacher preparation programs do not challenge teachers' beliefs and attitudes that have developed as a result of membership in the mainstream culture. As a result, teacher educators have proposed a number of programs that will prepare students for working with diverse populations (Harrington & Hathaway, 1995; Noel, 1995; Shade, 1995).

This effectiveness of current teacher education practices to prepare teachers for the challenges associated with teaching diverse groups of children has been supported by research (i.e., Haberman, 1991; Irvine, 1991; Zeichner, 1992). There is a growing concern that teachers are not prepared or able to apply the National Standards of Academic Excellence in an equitable manner to all students (Bennett, 1995; Fuller, 1999; Grant, 1993). A survey by the Association of Teacher Educators suggested that preservice teachers are not being prepared to teach in multiethnic, multicultural settings (Buttery, Haberman, & Houston, 1990). The National Center for Education Statistics (1999) found that only 20 percent of teachers expressed confidence in working with children from diverse backgrounds.

The Role of Teacher Beliefs ill the Diverse Classroom

Beliefs influence how teachers may teach (Kagan, 1992; Nespor, 1987) and understand diversity (Sleeter, 1992). Additionally, research on the preparation of teachers for the diverse classroom has suggested that preservice teachers beliefs have an impact on the implementation of multicultural education (Caner & Goodwin, 1994; Giles & Sherman, 1982; Goodwin, 1997; Ladson-Billings, 1994, Law & Lane, 1987; Pohan, 1996). Most would agree that teachers' beliefs have an influence on their perceptions and, ultimately, their behaviors. Thus, having an understanding of teacher belief structures is important to the improvement of professional teacher preparation programs as well as teaching practices (Goodman, 1988). Bandura (1986) and Dewey (1933) inferred that beliefs were the most significant predictors of the decisions that individuals make throughout their lives. Consequently, teacher beliefs are a significant factor in how preservice teachers respond to diversity in the classroom. "Learning to teach diverse students requires that teachers examine their beliefs about teaching and explore the effectiveness of their practices in accommodating the various cultures, lifestyles, and learning styles of their students" (Cabal & Burstein, 1995, p. 285).

Preservice teachers have experienced more than twelve years of schooling experiences and have observed classroom, family, and community responses to diversity. This socialization process results in the development of individual belief systems. These belief structures help to organize and accept or reject new incoming information (Walsh & Charalambides, 1990). As a result, teaching practices are overwhelmingly based on the teachers' background and experiences (Baca & Cervantes, 1989; Cuban, 1984). Spradley and McCurdy (1984) further explain the role of beliefs regarding diversity,

   We tend to think that the norms we follow represent the `natural' way human
   beings do things. Those who behave otherwise are judged morally wrong. This
   viewpoint is ethnocentric, which means that people think their own culture
   represents the best, or at least the most appropriate way for human beings
   to live (p. 2-3).

Teacher beliefs, based on experiences and memories, should be brought to the surface and examined through thoughtful reflection if the teacher preparation program is to alter the knowledge and beliefs held by students (Richardson, 1996, p. 106). One goal of teacher education programs is to assist teachers in challenging racial bias in the school culture. A prerequisite for achievement of this goal is the development of a reflective orientation to practice. Preservice teachers must be willing to confront one's own attitudes and privileges before they can explore their beliefs and, ultimately, consider the implications of their teaching practices.

Barriers for the Implementation of a Diverse Curriculum

No empirical studies have identified the perceived barriers to implementing a diverse curriculum. Many barriers have been considered in textbooks about diversity and multicultural education; however, no research has investigated teachers' perceived barriers. One's perception, based on an individual belief system, of barriers is most important in the preparation of teachers. Once these have been identified, teacher education programs should consider strategies for helping students confront these barriers.

Rationale

The review of literature on multicultural teacher education programs and preservice teachers demonstrates the need for teachers who are prepared to work with diverse populations of children. Teacher preparation programs need to design effective programs for increasing the understanding of preservice teachers. Therefore, the beliefs and attitudes of teacher education students are significant for developing programs that may better prepare teachers for entry into the diverse classroom. Beliefs about barriers will assist in the identification of important factors to be included in the preparation of teachers.

Method

Subjects

The subjects for this study were sophomore-level students (n = 68) enrolled in two sections of a teacher education program located at a large north-central campus. All students were early childhood education majors. The average age was 20.05. The subjects included 61 females and seven males.

Procedures

Students were asked to reflect on their individual beliefs about the obstacles to the implementation of a diversity curriculum. Students were asked to reflect on the barriers they believed could impede the development of a diverse classroom community. Each student was permitted to identify as many barriers as one believed to be an obstacle. Students' responses ranged from the identification of one barrier to four barriers. The majority of students considered the barriers associated with teaching in a racially diverse classroom' however, three students considered teaching in an all-Caucasian classroom.

Following the analysis of students' reflective writing, beliefs were categorized and themes emerged. The themes were classified into four broad categories of inherent barriers. These obstacles to the implementation of a diverse curriculum that integrates anti-bias education were categorized into the following themes: Difficulty Discussing Sensitive Topics, Policies and Practices Detrimental to Diversity, Difficulty Implementing Diversity Curriculum, and the Inability to Recognize and Accept Diversity. Each of these broad categories was then arranged into more specific clusters. The broad categorizations and specific groups will be defined and examples will help illustrate each theme.

Difficulty Discussing Sensitive Topics

This theme, termed Difficulty Discussing Sensitive Topics, comprised 11 (16%) of the students' responses. This theme, comprised all barriers related to sensitive topics, was separated into two more specific groups: Religion in the Classroom and Creating Controversy.

Religion in the Classroom. Eight students (73%) who identified the barrier of discussing sensitive topics, selected religion as a highly difficult topic to include in the classroom. Students expressed their concern regarding the separation of church and state. "I believe there is a very thin line between church and state and in the public schools and this line should not be crossed," explains one student. Another student pondered, "How can you create religious diversity without offending people's beliefs?" For some, religious beliefs were considered an obstacle to the creation of an environment in which all religions were equally represented. For example, one student explained, "Different religions view some forms of diversity as sinful." On the other hand, a student recognized the need to reflect on individual beliefs and attitudes toward religion. "I need to sort out my feelings on how to handle children who do not celebrate versus those who do. Who do you respect and is there any way to make both children and parents happy?" This statement illustrated the belief that ascribing to one set of religious beliefs precluded the ability to respect the variety of religions practiced in the community and beyond.

Controversy. Three students (27%) who selected the barrier of discussing sensitive topics, identified controversy, in general, as a major concern for implementing a diverse curriculum. One student stated that she wanted to avoid controversial topics and " ... not upset anyone." Another student explained, it is difficult "... being politically correct in everything you say and do. Lately it seems that whatever you say can be offensive to someone."

Policies and Practices Detrimental to Diversity

The theme of barriers created by the policies and procedures within the environment were identified by 20 (29%) of the students' responses. This theme was further divided into two categories: Federal, State, and School Regulations and Geography (i.e., the location of the school).

Federal, state and school regulations. Nine of the students (45%) who identified schools' policies and practices as a barrier to diversity, stated that federal, state, or local school regulations were a major concern. One student stated that the type of school makes an impact on the level of acceptance for implementing a diversity curriculum. For example, "religious and public schools have a different set of guidelines for including diverse topics in the classroom." Yet, the level of support is not limited to the type of school. Individual school policies and regulations have an impact on the willingness to support diversity. One student explained, "... teachers and principals may rather avoid bringing up diversity and just keeping "old school" curriculum in practice." Other students agreed that "[s]ome schools still to this day are very prejudiced" and "... many schools are not accepting of a diverse curriculum." Additionally, "... school boards could get mad" when sensitive issues related to diversity are included in the curriculum.

However, local school districts were not the only source of policies failing to support diversity. State and federal government was identified as another source of conflicting policies. One issue identified was that the government can "do more to help educate under-privileged children." Another issue reflects the current political debates regarding standardized testing, "Children have to learn certain things at certain grade levels, if they don't they are supposed to be held back.... Not that getting along with others isn't just as important as learning to read, write, or do math, but getting along is squeezed out by proficiency testing."

Geography. The barrier of geography was defined as a community with limited diversity or limited experience with diverse populations. Schools located in these areas were viewed as unaware of the need for diversity issues to be included in the education of young children. Eleven students (55%) who identified policies and practices as a barrier, explained that the geographical location impacted the level of acceptance and ability to integrate a diverse curriculum. "If you live in an all white community," the perceived need for diversity is minimal at best. One student explained, "The reason why the area a teacher is teaching in can implement teaching diversity in the classroom is because in some areas where there is strictly one race or ethnicity they may not be accepting of other cultures.... They may even have certain biases or stereotypes towards people of different cultures because they have never gotten a chance to encounter anyone of a different culture before or because they are listening to the biases of their parents."

The beliefs and attitudes of the community were not the only reason a non-diverse community was identified as a barrier to implementing multicultural curriculum. The lack of diversity would not contribute to children's understanding of cultural groups different from oneself. One student stated that children learn about other cultures by interacting with diverse people. "They need to learn for themselves that they are people too and that they are just like us. I don't feel that they can do this unless they meet and interact with that other person." Adopting a constructivist approach to education, another student identified the "... lack of physically diverse examples made available to the children" as a potential barrier to understanding diversity because "... they would have nothing to relate their experiences to in the world around them."

Difficulty Implementing a Diversity Curriculum

Difficulty implementing a diverse curriculum included responses related to the challenges that may be experienced by teachers with a desire to implement a multicultural curriculum. Fourteen students (21%) identified, Difficulty Implementing a Diversity Curriculum, as a barrier to creating acceptance of a diverse classroom. This theme was further developed into three categories: Developing Curriculum and Teaching Strategies, Time Constraints, and Financial Constraints.

Developing Curriculum and Teaching Strategies. Eleven students (79%) of those who identified the difficulty of implementing a diversity curriculum as the barrier, explained that the barrier was embedded in the development of an anti-bias curriculum and developing appropriate teaching strategies. Students identified the inclusion of a multicultural curriculum as important. For example, one student explains, "I think we as educators must implement diversity into our everyday curriculum. I think that all too often we focus on certain times to introduce diversity topics. For example, black history month or women's rights month. These issues and all other types of diversity should be incorporated into whatever subject is being taught whenever it is taught. We do not need to focus on celebrations or certain days to bring diversity into our curriculum." Another student further explained, "It is very important to educate students on these issues but I really don't think that there is one set way to figure out how it should be done. It is up to the teacher and the students to see what should be taught." This illustrates teachers' desire to implement a multicultural curriculum, however, this aspiration is tempered by the overwhelming nature of the task. As one student stated, "It is necessary to cover all areas of diversity so that no one is feeling left out or discriminated." Another student revealed, "My curriculum could have incorrect or developmentally inappropriate information." Another concern was the "... currentness of the curriculum about diversity. The diversity of the society seems to be changing rapidly ..."

Time Constraints. Two students (14%) suggested that time constraints may be responsible for preventing the implementation of a diverse curriculum. One student explained, "... there is just not enough time. There is a standard curriculum that is required of teachers to teach and after adding these curriculum standards into their lesson books there is not much time left for other projects and programs. The key to having a diverse curriculum in the classroom then is by integrating it into standard lessons and learning. Teachers can involve the children into a project in which they learn about diversity, and add spelling, mathematics, writing, and reading activities into the project. In this way the children not only learn about diversity, but they also gain required skills."

Financial Constraints. One student (7%) explained that financial constraints contributed to the challenge of implementing a diverse curriculum. This pragmatic student explained, the "... amount of money that the district can spend ..." determines the teacher's ability to include multiculturalism. "In order to educate children on diversity, supplies will be needed." If funding is not available for multicultural education, the inclusion of materials and activities will not be supported.

Inability to Recognize and Accept Diversity

Sixty of the students' responses identified the inability of others to recognize and accept diversity. The theme identified as the Inability to Recognize and Accept Diversity was further divided into four categories: Society, Teachers, Parents, and Children.

Society Eleven students (18.3%) who identified the inability to recognize and accept diversity explained that society's biased views may prevent the inclusion of diversity in the curriculum. Students explained that society should eliminate the stereotypes and biases in order to accept diversity. "I think society, as a whole, is the biggest obstacle in the way of implementing a diverse curriculum." A student explains, "It is hard to maintain a diverse atmosphere when people are not welcoming of certain types of people or lifestyles." Developing an accepting environment because, "Prejudice, discrimination, and gender differences are all obstacles that will have to be overcome." However, "Some people are dead set in their ways and do not want to know anything different from their own." Individual views may be "... prejudiced or afraid of change ..." Individuals "... who have prejudices have also been taught this throughout their lives. The older a person is, the longer it's going to take to erase these prejudices."

Teachers. Five students (8.3%) indicated that teachers' biased views may prevent the inclusion of diversity in the curriculum. A student explains, "... Teachers who are narrow-minded will be obstacles ..." "Some teachers will stick to their lesson plans and find teaching children about diversity unimportant ..." On a more personal reflection, a student expressed, "I think every teacher has the obstacle of presenting information without bias or personal opinion. Even though I feel I am not prejudiced, I still have my own opinions and views." Another student agrees, "The biggest obstacle I feel I will face is my own beliefs. Knowing that I believe something, and knowing that everyone has a right to believe what they want is something I am going to have to remind myself of."

Parents. Thirty-eight students (63.3%) explained that parents' biased attitudes and views may prevent diverse topics from being included in the curriculum. Many preservice teachers stated the belief that parents are the source of biases. One student explains, "I think a lot of the biases that children bring to the classroom will come from their parents or home life. That will be a major obstacle because most parents want their children to believe what they believe and nothing else." In agreement, a student states, "It starts at the parents, whatever their values and beliefs are, are those of their children's also. Many parents are racist or have unusual religious beliefs. The parents have the most impact on how their child thinks, so they are closest barrier that children have to overcome." Another explains, "Many parents today still hold racial grudges against people. They may teach their kids racism, hate, and prejudice. This is a huge obstacle to overcome. It is not just parents it could be grandparents, friends, and relatives, and brothers and sisters." A student concludes, "... parents and the views that they have instilled in their children affect how smoothly a diverse curriculum can be implemented. Some parents may not approve of teaching about a religion that they do not believe in or a culture that they know nothing about because of fear."

Another major concern that teachers expressed was that parents may not be supportive of the inclusion of a multicultural curriculum. "I think parents don' t see a need for lessons of diversity for their kids." "Some parents may not want their children to learn about different cultures or traditions either." "Possibly one of the biggest obstacles for diversity is the parents themselves. [If] a child comes home with a new belief or experience ... parents that have very stubborn beliefs themselves will not tolerate their children being taught different view." Additionally, "... many of them [parents] can have biased opinions of certain issues. Parents can stress the beliefs on their children, which can cause the children to not be accepting of a diverse curriculum. If their children are accepting of diversity the parents can be angry and take some of their frustrations out on the teacher."

The fear of offending parents was another concern many students expressed. When considering the multicultural curriculum, a student stated that, "The parents will be offended ..." by the inclusion of diversity. Another student continues, "... if you study and discuss one thing, it may upset one parent, but if you go the other route you are going to upset another group of parents.... Many parents have stereotypes and biases and are projecting those onto their own children." Another student reflects on the perceived difficulty of dealing with parents and discussing sensitive diversity topics, "It must be hard trying to please everyone and not stepping on any of parents' toes ..." One student elaborated on her perception of working with parents. She stated that she would have a "... hard time dealing with parents who just do not care what goes on in their children's lives. I really have a hard time dealing with this because I do not understand why people continue to have children when they do not care about the ones they have. I also have little respect for parents who are not involved, but hold the teacher responsible."

Children. Six students (10%) explained that children's biased views may prevent diverse topics to be included in the curriculum. The fear of offending a child was described by two students. "Some students could be offended on how you present your lessons, such as how you teach it or how you act." Students also recalled instances of name-calling when they were children and reflected on the various ways in which feelings may be hurt. "You will have many students in your class who could be racially diverse. Some students will make fun of others about what they look like, and how they dress." Another student continues reflecting on this theme, it," ... brought to my attention Monday, March 5, 2001 after the shooting in California. The reason I feel this is important is because the papers have described him as being the "dork, nerd." He was doing this as an attempt to get attention from people. I feel this is an issue that deals with diversity greatly, because everyone is different in his or her own way and society needs to accept this fact."

Discussion

Preservice teachers' perceived beliefs about the barriers to the implementation of a diverse curriculum is vital to the understanding of the obstacles that prevent the attainment of an anti-biased curriculum. Teacher educators must become aware of the perceived barriers of future classroom teachers. These perceived beliefs may be interpreted as inherent barriers obstructing the implementation of a diverse curriculum. Future research may determine preservice teachers beliefs and identification of barriers and then follow these teachers longitudinally as they enter the classroom and begin to implement curriculum.

Teachers want parents to be involved in the classroom, yet many have perceptions that parents are not involved with their children and fail to facilitate diverse views in the home context. Although many parents will have more in common with teachers than different, many preservice teachers expressed the belief that parents are not as knowledgeable and are, therefore, less caring for their children. Preservice teachers identified parents as the greatest obstacle to teaching in a diverse classroom and promoting an anti-bias curriculum. Sixty-three percent of the preservice teachers responding to this study believed parents would oppose and perhaps prevent teachers from integrating diverse groups into the classroom. Although some topics, such as racial and religious beliefs, may be sensitive issues, these differences are becoming ever-more prevalent in the classrooms with young children. In order to sustain a partnership between teachers and parents, these beliefs about the role and ability of parents must be further explored.

Conclusions

The true barriers to creating a diverse classroom are the obstacles perceived by the teachers. Rather real or imagined, the teachers' perceived barriers are the greatest deterrent to the inclusion of diversity. The investigation of teacher's perceived barriers will assist teacher educators in the identification of themes for reflection. Preservice teachers need to consider the potential barriers to the implementation of a diverse curriculum. Reflection on one's attitudes and beliefs will have an impact on the perceived barriers. One goal of teacher education should be the of destruction of these barriers in order for teachers to integrate diversity in the curriculum.

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Cheri W. Van Hook, Ph.D., Assistant Professor, School of Human and Consumer Sciences, Ohio University.

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Dr. Cheri W. Van Hook. School of Human and Consumer Sciences, Grover Center W 324, Athens, OH 45701-2979. Email: [e-mail]