Practicing to teach: oral history in education.

Abstract

Since 2000, two teacher educators have collaborated to develop and implement an interdisciplinary service-learning project in which senior-level teacher candidates have participated. Oral history provides the vehicle for service-learning. Each of the candidates identifies, interviews, and writes an oral history on a woman who experienced World War II, on the home front or in the armed forces, as a teenager or young adult. By writing the oral histories, the candidates preserved history and learned history, writing, and pedagogical practices.

Introduction

In a linear, top-down model of teacher education, a professor tells about, and possibly demonstrates, effective teaching methods for teacher candidates with the hope that the methods will be eventually emulated by new teachers. [1] But a truism winding through some educational circles is that teachers tend to teach the way they were taught, rather than what they were taught.[2] If this premise is accepted, a different approach is needed--one that features feasibility rather than wishful thinking. As teachers of a methods course for elementary school majors, we wrestled with ways to teach that would equip teachers to move beyond traditional textbook-based instruction to explore authentic ways to engage students.

Before teacher candidates enter their first methods class, they have been students for fourteen or more years. Whether or not teachers employed effective methods to engage them in learning, their understanding of teaching was imprinted with a prototypical pattern. To simply continue replicating a pattern of effective teaching is an auspicious circumstance for a methods teacher; to discard an old pattern and replace it with a new one is a worthwhile challenge. In either case, teacher candidates should learn to be effective educators by being engaged in learning and teaching experiences originating in effective practices. Oral history provides such an experience.

Oral history is a process and product. Information is acquired, usually through interviews, from individuals with firsthand knowledge of a historical event or era. The product is either the transcripts or a story about the interviewee based on the transcripts.

Women of World War II

While much has been written about men who served in the armed forces during World War II, little is written about the daily lives of women during that period. Women served in the armed forces as nurses and support staff, they worked in factories manufacturing armaments and equipment for the war effort, and volunteered to support the troops in many ways. But the vast majority of women did their part by writing to servicemen, enduring hardships of rationing, following the news about the war, maintaining their families and the American way of life, and praying that their loved ones and all who fought in the war would return home alive and uninjured. Through this oral history project, these women are recognized for their contributions, and future generations will have the privilege of learning about life during World War II as the women experienced it. These women's stories, written by the candidates, have been collected in ten volumes thus far, one for each semester, of oral histories.

Oral History as Teaching Methodology

With the salient purpose of encouraging candidates to become effective teachers, we modeled an oral history project for integrating social studies--particularly history--and language arts. Our aim was that candidates would perceive the connection between a way to learn and a way to teach. By hearing the women's stories, candidates learned about World War II from women who experienced the world at war. Each candidate identified a woman, interviewed her, wrote her story, and prepared it for publication. While there are language arts dimensions of the project, this article features oral history and its significance for teaching history and civics. Although the candidates have been taught history at various times, from elementary school through college, most had not been engaged in authentic experiences to gather data from primary sources and to write historical accounts. For the most part, they agreed with VanSickle's (1999) findings that social studies were dull and uninspiring. As elementary school teachers, they are likely to teach social studies or at least be in a position in which history or other social studies can be integrated with another subject. Will their students' classes be dull and uninspiring or exciting and motivating? To encourage the candidates to embark on new territory--a project the candidates could experience as learners.

The oral history project qualifies as service-learning, because the candidates provide the service of preserving the historical accounts and learn a method of teaching and learning. Teachers can employ oral history for any subject and educational level. Spivey (2005) features oral history projects for middle and high school students in social science. He explains that oral history provides hands-on experiences and can replace more traditional assignment like an examination or term paper. Spivey's project also qualifies as service-learning, as he notes, "It is both a service given to the community, as well as a practical way for students to reflect on what they have been studying in class" (p. 69). Huerta and Flemmer (2000) also discuss oral history as an instructional method for secondary social studies classes. They refer to oral history as "a record of spoken memories" (p. 110), and add, "Oral histories turn ordinary people, their lives, and their stories into credible historical resources" (p. 110). Van Oteghen (1996) shows that oral history is not limited to social science and language arts. She explains the relevance of oral history to physical education when students learn history and writing by interviewing people about their participation in sports and events like the Senior Olympics. Kurt Piehler (2001) also works with university students to move beyond textbook readings and review of primary documents by interviewing World War II veterans.

Achieving National Standards

Everywhere one looks nowadays, the importance of history in schools is touted, but the reality of schooling reminds us that teachers must be convinced of its importance and encouraged to teach history in a way that excites and motivates students. Another definitive goal is that social studies curriculum must be aligned with national standards of excellence. Putnam and Rommel-Esham (2004) show that elementary students can participate in meaningful oral history projects, which integrates mathematics, science, and language arts, and the social studies standard of change over time is met (p. 201).

The oral history project correlates with several standards set forth by the National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS) and the National Center for History in the Schools. Among the ten thematic strands of the NCSS curriculum standards for middle school students, two are particularly applicable to the project. Time, Continuity, and Change (Thematic Strand Two) includes students' ability to "identify and use processes important to constructing and reinterpreting the past." The performance expectation of students identified in Thematic Strand Ten: Civic Ideals and Practices relates to the project by focusing on the identification and interpretation of "sources and examples of the rights and responsibilities of citizens."[3] The project also addresses the National Center's Era 8, Standard Three of the United States History Standards that includes the nature of World War II on the home front. By interviewing and writing the stories of these women, the teacher candidates gain a personal understanding of their historical roots, appreciation for the forbearers' contributions, and different perspectives on the roles of citizens and the indivisible link between civic rights and responsibilities. Civic Education and Teaching of Traditional American History are two programs featured in the No Child Left Behind legislation. [4] While the National History Standards Project has been criticized, there appears to be agreement on the necessity of improving the quality of history education through the ongoing training of teachers in content and pedagogy.

Beginning with the premise that fostering the development of informed citizens is a responsibility of schools, we looked to curricula that had succeeded elsewhere. We identified sources on engaging methods of teaching students in elementary, middle, high school, and college, including methods in teacher education. Based on a study with middle school students, Dimmitt and VanCleaf (1992) conclude that the formal research paper is an inappropriate assignment for most students at this level. Other researchers recommend narrative-based approaches over textbook-based approaches, because narrative brings an affective dimension to student learning and taps into students' interests and academic preferences. [5] Poncia (1994) found that as elementary school students engage in an oral history project with senior citizens, they are honing their interviewing and writing skills. Similarly, many of the teacher candidates experienced gains in writing competency. As a candidate stated:

   It was like social studies came alive, and I traveled back in time.
   To take the information that I learned ... and transform it into
   a story was amazing. I went through the writing process and the
   outcome was a well thought out and planned biography. [6]

Personal Meaning

To develop a context for the narratives about women of World War II, the teacher candidates accessed a wide array of resources. They came to understand and greatly appreciate the contributions and sacrifices of the women. [7] Teacher candidates' reflections evidence a sense of personal fulfillment realized through the experience:

   Oral history projects also teach respect for our elders and others
   who have been through life-altering experiences that one had only
   read about. By hearing someone tell the story and how it affected
   him or her, one may also appreciate it more than just reading
   the chapter of a history book.

   It allowed us to participate in a service-learning project, which
   is something we will have our students participate in. It gave me
   a sense of pride in doing something for my community. It is
   important to preserve the history of my community. I want my
   students to be proud of their community and to learn the
   importance of preserving its history.... I will be sure to
   incorporate an oral history project in my class. It is a great
   learning experience for students.

   [The oral history project] allowed me to learn about things in
   a way that I never had before. In history classes you learn the
   "facts" of how things happen. This assignment allowed me to
   learn the feelings and compassion of the people of those times.

Gandesbery's (1988) findings on personal fulfillment correspond to candidates' responses on the end-of-project questionnaire. Gandesbery's college writing students gained confidence and competence as they recognized the value of their work as an historical document and a story that conveys the value of a person's life. Through intergenerational projects particularly, students found common ground for understanding each other in ways that were not possible before. Since the oral history paper will survive after an assignment has been completed, Gandesbery said,

   [S]tudents feel as if they are participating in a lively
   intellectual and cultural process, one that travels beyond
   the limitations and peripheries of the classroom. They are not
   merely fulfilling an assignment for a particular class ... rather,
   they are creating documents that possess a life separate from the
   confinements of the class.

The oral histories written by the candidates will also survive and be available to educate future generations. The sense of personal fulfillment, while not an original objective of the project, is an outcome that will not be forgotten.

Teacher Candidates Practice What They'll Teach

There is evidence that most--not all--of the teacher candidates in our classes learned a new method of teaching by completing oral histories. We concluded that assignments with an authentic purpose foster teacher candidates' understanding of the importance of real world connections and the meaningfulness of participating in a project that benefits others. [8] According to many candidates, it was unlikely that they would use this method to teach their students had they not experienced it themselves. Other research shows that teachers tend to replicate in their teaching the methods by which they were taught. Twenty years ago, Cuban (1983) noted that a set of core teaching practices has endured over the past century.

   These practices (teaching the whole group, reliance upon a
   textbook, rows of desks, question-answer framework for carrying
   on dialogue, etc.) persisted over time, in different settings,
   in spite of changes in teacher education and the knowledge that
   students bring to school and major social and cultural movements.

Throughout their schooling, candidates' experiences in social studies and language arts echo Cuban's description. Mostly, their classes were textbook-oriented and fact-based, requiring the memorization of facts for a test. Research was collecting information someone else had gathered and rewriting it in their own words, with occasional quotations from experts. Perhaps teachers prepared during Cuban's 1980s were enrolled in teacher education programs that fell short of enriching experiences. Shubert (1986) described methods courses of that time as involving

   drab lists of strategies to be memorized apart from any
   teaching-learning context and are interspersed with requirements
   to write units and lesson plans according to some rigidly
   specified format. If this is not enough, the student spends too
   many hours listening to outdated lectures delivered by someone who
   has had little touch with the real world of school for many years.

According to Shubert, change in K-12 classrooms is questionable when innovative teaching methods are not modeled in teacher education programs. We believe it is incumbent upon teacher educators to redouble their efforts by modeling research-based methods and providing opportunities for teacher candidates to practice what and how they are expected to teach.

In many classrooms today, methods involving student inquiry and authentic research are replacing or supplementing ineffective styles of instruction. Higher standards, paradigmatic changes in educational philosophy, and the identification of best pedagogical practices are creating a basis for the expectation that effective practices will be employed in the future classrooms of those we presently teach.

In response to a question about the connection between the oral history assignment and their future career in teaching, a few teacher candidates indicated that they are still functioning within a paradigm in which the teacher dispenses information to recipient students. One stated, for example, that this project provided her with a great deal of information that she can share with here students. Most of the candidates, however, pointed out that the project served as a model for an assignment they could employ with their own students, signifying the candidates' confidence and motivation to take a plunge into the sea of change. Three candidates noted:

   There is no better way, in my opinion, to understand history.

   I will teach history with more passion now that I have had this
   experience. I will encourage my students to take the time to sit
   down with the older generation and listen to their stories.... I
   think it is important for students to personally interview someone
   that has experienced a part of history that they have not
   experienced ... because it gives the student a different
   perspective about the event, other than just reading it from a
   book. It allows the student to become personally involved with a
   piece of history, therefore gaining much more knowledge than they
   would from a lecture or a book.

   This project was important ... because it allowed me to see
   first-hand how to incorporate the subjects of social studies and
   language arts in a meaningful way to students.

We recognize the apparently inscrutable situations many teachers may encounter in moving from a zone of comfort to a new school of thought and action, and we are often competing with the teacher candidates' strong ties to the traditional culture of schooling. If teacher candidates are to break with these traditions, they need more than preaching that they should adopt new methods. They need to experience for themselves the processes, benefits, and challenges. If nothing else, they have had an opportunity to view the inner-workings of a distinctly different paradigm than one that is more familiar.

Teacher Partners & Classroom Applications

Engaging the candidates in an oral history project provided a learning experience they can replicate, with some adaptations, with their own students. Fortunately, teachers employing this method serve as standard-bearers for candidates and new teachers to follow. Through intergenerational service-learning projects, they provide opportunities for students to learn history from first-hand accounts, develop bonds with elder citizens, and gain appreciation of prior generations' contributions to their families, communities, and nation.

Building upon students' interests and an authentic reason for learning, oral history offers a means of differentiating instruction for students. Rather than writing a traditional narrative, technology can be infused, using Internet sources and creating multimedia presentations. Creative arts can be incorporated in poster presentations for exhibition in schools and community sites. Plays can be written and performed for classmates, parents, those whose stories are told, and wider audiences. Students can create picture books and displays of photographs and other artifacts. Besides focusing on the experiences of individuals during wars or other major historical events, projects can center on a myriad of historical topics, such as occupations, family traditions, recipes, local legends, songs, and social issues. These and other topics and forms of presentation can tap into students' interests and offer authentic opportunities for studying history.

Conclusion

Through the oral history project, the candidates practiced what we hoped they would teach. Most comments indicated that the candidates will include oral history to their repertoire of teaching methods. While the project was viewed at the outset as extra work, the candidates found it a meaningful learning experience, and they developed a new appreciation for the elder population. The authentic assignment demonstrated the importance of real world connections and civic engagement that benefits others. The project will continue with the added dimension of interviewing former candidates to learn if and how they are using oral history.

References

Author. Course on World War II Enlists Undergraduates as Oral Historians. The Chronicle of Higher Education. Vol.48, Iss. 12; pg. A. 12. Washington: (Nov. 16, 2001).

Cuban, Larry. "How Did Teachers Teach, 1890-1980," Theory into Practice, Vol. 22, no. 2: 165, 1983.

Dimmit, Jean P. and David VanCleaf. "Integrating Writing and Social Studies: Alternatives to The Formal Research Paper." Social Education. Vol. 56,no. 7: 382-384. November-December 1992.

Eisner, Thomas & Paul Buhle. The Class I Most Like to Teach. The Chronicle of Higher Education. Vol. 50, Iss. 14; pg. B.14. Washington: (November 28, 2003).

Gandesbery, Jean. "The Place of Oral History in Composition Classes" (ERIC Document 294-219) 4, 1988.

Huerta, Grace C., Flemmer, Leslie A. Using student-generated oral history research in the Secondary classroom. The Social Studies. Vol. 91, Iss. 3; pg. 110, 6 pgs., Washington: May/June 2000.

Poncia, Melissa. Integrating History and Language Arts: A Review of Five Professional Journal Article. (ED-377-479): 12 pp., 1994.

Putman, Errol & Rommel-Esham, Katie. Using Oral History to Study Change: An Integrated Approach. Social Studies. vol.95, Iss. 5, pg. 201, 5 pgs., Washington: Sept./Oct. 2004.

Shubert, William. Curriculum: Perspectives, Paradigm, and Possibility. New York: McMillan: pgs. 383-384, 1986.

Spivey, Michael. Service Learning: Service through Oral History Projects. The Clearing House. vol. 79, Iss. 2; pg. 69, 2 pgs., Washington: Nov./Dec., 2005.

Totten, Samuel. "Using Oral Histories to Address Social Issues in the Social Studies Classroom." Social Education 53, no. 2, 114-116, February, 1989.

Van Oteghen, Sharon L. Using oral history as a motivating tool in teaching. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance. Reston, VA., Vol. 67, Iss. 6; pg. 45, 4 pgs., August, 1996.

VanSickle, Ronald L. "The Personal Relevance to the Social Studies," Social Education, vol. 54, no.1, pgs.23-27, 59, 1990.

Lydia W. McCardle, Southeastern Louisiana University

Cheryl L. Edwards, Southeastern Louisiana University

Endnotes

[1] Teacher candidate is another term for pre-service teachers.

[2] Linda Darling-Hammond. The Right to Learn: A Blueprint for Creating Schools that Work San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, p. 320, 1997.

[3] Walter C. Parker and John Jarolimek . Curriculum Standards for the Social Studies: Expectations of Excellence. Upper Saddle River, NJ: National Council for the Social Studies, pg. 2, 1991.

[4] U.S. Department of Education. Office of Elementary and Secondary Education. No Child Left Behind. Jessup, MD: EPC, 2002.

[5] Linda Symcox . Whose History? The Struggle for National Standards in American Classrooms. New York: Teachers College Press, 2002.

[6] Quotations of seven candidates are included in the article. They are excerpted from a questionnaire that candidates complete on various aspects of their experience in the oral history project and its connections to the methods course content. The completed questionnaires are sealed in an envelope that is not opened until course grades are posted. Included in this article are comments from teacher candidates.

[7] This finding supports performance elements of NCSS Strands, particularly Strand Two (e) for Middle Grades: develop critical sensitivities such as empathy and skepticism regarding attitudes, values, and behaviors of people in different historical contexts.] Piehler (2001) also notes that bonds are formed across generations when his university students interview World War II veterans (p. A.12).

[8] The oral history project qualifies as service-learning, because candidates participated in a learning activity connected to their curriculum and provided a service that met the real and immediate need of preserving personal stories that otherwise would be lost. The candidates now know that service-learning is not an add-on assignment, but integral to teaching and learning--a way to teach and a way for students to learn.

McCardle, Ed. D., and Edwards, Ph.D., are Assistant Professors of Elementary Curriculum and Instruction in the College of Education and Human Development.