Practice and research in career counseling and Development--2005.

This article reviews professional literature published in 2005 related to career counseling and career development. The literature is divided into 4 broad areas: professional issues, career theory and concepts, career interventions and practice, and career assessment and technology. The authors summarize and discuss the implications of the findings for career counseling practice and research.

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Writing this review provided constant discovery. The career field is large, diverse, and specialized, and authors who contributed articles came from around the world. In fact, our search identified 40 education journals that included career articles but were not used in this review to enable us to concentrate on constructs central to the field. We followed the structure of the major topics within the four general areas that previous annual reviews adopted: professional issues, career theory and concepts, career interventions and practice, and career assessment and technology. These four areas provide continuity with previous annual reviews. The quantification process of key concepts that we adopted led to a weighting of topics and the eventual subheadings used in writing. Some articles covering several topics were integrated into a broader area to permit a more comprehensive treatment of a subject. Other articles were not included in the review. Eventually, we selected 190 articles.

We hand-searched the major career journals published in the United States: The Career Development Quarterly, Journal of Vocational Behavior, Journal of Career Development, Journal of Career Assessment, and Journal of Employment Counseling. We conducted a keyword search of all American Counseling Association (ACA) journals and of selected American Psychological Association (APA) journals. Included in this annual review are career-related articles from the Professional School Counseling, Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, Journal of Counseling & Development, Counselor Education and Supervision, Journal of Counseling Psychology, The Counseling Psychologist, Journal of College Student Development, Journal of Applied Psychology, Journal of College Counseling, College Student Journal, and the Journal of Rehabilitation.

We conducted a literature search using the same career-related keywords in other social sciences, business, and education fields. Regarding the education field, 8 excellent career-specific articles were identified as were school administration and higher education journals that had poignant and significant contributions directly related to career development. Unfortunately, contributions from these 42 journals were not included in this review because of space limitations. We did include articles from Community, Work and Family; Journal of Family Issues; Human Resource Management Review; Journal of Organizational Behavior; Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology; Psychology Bulletin; Human Relations; Journal of Occupational Health Psychology; Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research; Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology; and Psychological Reports.

Reflecting the globalization of the career field, the following international journals were searched for keywords and included in the review: International Journal for Educational and Vocational Guidance, Canadian Journal of Counselling, Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology, Career Development International (British), South African Journal of Psychology, British Journal of Guidance and Counselling, Perspectives in Education, Journal of Organizational Psychology, International Journal for the Advancement of Counseling, Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, and Journal of Youth Studies.

Professional Issues

Life Span Development

Youth. Hartung, Porfeli, and Vondracek asserted that childhood is a vital stage in career development. The focus of recent research has been on adolescence, overlooking experiences of childhood in life-span vocational psychology. They called on investigators to "study the gestalt of vocational development through inquiry that links developmental periods rather than isolates them piecemeal according to specific age periods" (Hartung et al., p. 411) and return attention to childhood influences on vocational development.

Hartung, Porfeli, et al. presented a comprehensive literature review as an impetus for childhood vocational development research. The review was organized across five dimensions: career exploration, career awareness, vocational expectations, vocational interests, and career maturity/adaptability. They examined each category from various perspectives including developmental progress, gender and self-role influences, race-ethnicity contextual factors, and psychological correlates. Conclusions from the review included the following: grade school children have a preliminary understanding of the concepts of interest and abilities, and they may explore the working world and state career aspirations (career exploration); young children (ages 3 to 5) demonstrate basic knowledge about occupations and occupational status and have attitudes, often stereotyped, about appropriate occupations (career awareness); children are aware of racial and socioeconomic class barriers to occupations, which leads to a widening gap between their aspirations and expectations (vocational expectations and aspirations); vocational interest patterns begin in childhood with age-related increases toward realistic interests (vocational interests); and children move from fantasy-based to reality-based orientations in career decision making as they near adolescence (career maturity).

Adolescence. Two articles addressed stability of vocational interests in longitudinal studies. Tracey, Robbins, and Hofsess examined Holland's RIASEC interests (i.e., Holland codes for career types: Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, Conventional) and academic skills among separate samples of boys and girls at Grades 8, 10, and 12. Results over the time span of the study demonstrated a high degree of stability in interest and academic skill scores. Interest scores, crystallization, and profile consistency also increased, supporting the developmental model of Super (1957, 1980). No interest type showed greater stability than others. Although participants' career choices were congruent with their interests from Grade 8 to 10, they decreased in congruency in the 12th grade. Tracey et al. surmised a reassessment of plans as the participants approached college years. Scores in Grade 12 may represent more realistic assessments, or the changes may be due to a reaction to stress. Girls had more stable interest and crystallization scores from Grade 10 to 12. The 12th grade seemed to be a period of reassessment for boys. Tracey et al. found a linear trend for increasing crystallization over time and noted that interest profiles showed greater consistency. The authors concluded that there were stability and clearly defined changes during high school. They recommended additional career interventions during the 12th grade because of the flux in interest and career choices in that year.

Low, Yoon, Roberts, and Rounds used a meta-analysis on studies with test-retest intervals of at least 1 year to determine stability of vocational interests across eight age categories from early adolescence, starting at 11.5 years of age, through age 40. They found that vocational interests remained relatively stable from ages 12 to 40. Stability remained unchanged from middle to high school. There was a large increase in stability of vocational interests as the majority of participants entered college. The actual peak year occurred during college. Interest stability rose to about .70 and remained at that level for 2 decades. No significant gender-based differences were found. In reviewing the RIASEC model, the stability of Realistic interests was the highest, and in decreasing order, Artistic, Social, Investigative, Conventional, and Enterprising followed. Vocational interests and personality traits increased in stability during college years. After college, interest stability plateaued, and personality traits continued to increase in stability. Adolescents' vocational interests were linked to individual and academic interests. Contrary to Tracey et al.'s findings, stability of interests remained unchanged prior to college. Low et al. concluded from meta-analysis that vocational interests are moderately to highly stable over the life span.

In a study by ter Bogt, Raaijmakers, and van Wel, a random heterogeneous sample of 650 adolescents from the Utrech Study on Adolescent Development and one of their parents completed attitude scales to measure political orientation and work ethic. Significant findings indicated that traditional work ethic was associated with cultural, but not economic, conservatism. Socialization factors modestly influenced the development of work ethic. A strong work ethic was more prevalent among families with lower socioeconomic status and educational levels. Educational level initially influenced the development of work ethic, but the effect lessened as the educational level rose. Educational level was influenced by social class, parents' education, and parents' culture. ter Bogt et al. concluded that the less privileged of the working class have few expectations of following high-level career paths and rely on a strong work ethic to find and keep a job.

Kenny and Bledsoe examined contextual factors that may influence career adaptability. They used Savickas's (2002) definition of career adaptability, the readiness and ability to negotiate and cope with challenges of vocation developmental tasks. Kenny and Bledsoe identified four related tasks: school identification (valuing and identifying with school), perceptions of educational barriers, career expectations, and career planning. The combined and unique contributions to these four dimensions were investigated. The authors' sample of 322 urban high schools students completed multiple instruments measuring social support, peer beliefs, school identification, perceptions of educational barriers, outcome expectations regarding careers, and career planning. They found significant gender differences. Girls identified with school. They perceived high levels of support from their parents, teachers, and friends and tended to experience positive peer attitudes about school, leading to "higher levels of school identification, fewer educational barriers, higher career expectations and higher levels of career planning" (Kenny & Bledsoe, p. 265). Boys anticipated more barriers than did girls, supporting previous research that boys in urban settings are more at risk for failure and attrition.

An examination of unique contributions to career adaptability dimensions indicated that peer beliefs were significant, unique contributors. Teacher support significantly affected school identification, as did peer beliefs. The latter also influenced perceptions of educational barriers. Kenny and Bledsoe observed that peer beliefs about school had greater impact on school identification than did support from close friends.

College students. J. C. Watson's article about attitudes of college student-athletes toward help-seeking behavior, and their expectations of counseling service provided insight for career center professionals and colleges and universities. Samples of athletes in varsity sports (football and men's basketball were not included) and of nonathletes were chosen to assess counseling expectations and attitudes about seeking psychological services. Four counseling expectancy factors were considered: personal commitment, facilitative conditions (acceptance and genuineness), counselor expertise, and nurturance. Findings indicated that student-athletes do have fewer positive attitudes toward help-seeking activities than do nonathletes. All factors, except nurturance, were significant. Student-athletes expect counselors to be knowledgeable and trained, suggesting that counselors understand the challenges and stress of their dual role of student and athlete.

Graunke and Woosley's research was directed at students in their sophomore year of college when selection of an academic major is expected. Citing the work of Gardner (2000), the researchers noted that sophomores were more likely to report choosing a major or a career as their major concern. They were also less likely to interact with faculty and were less involved in academic and social activities. Commitment to a major and faculty/staff interactions were significantly correlated with grade point average (GPA) in fall and spring semesters, whereas commitment to a major and activity involvement were positively correlated only in the spring. Institutional commitment was significantly related to GPA in the fall. It was apparent that the choice of a major fostered academic performance and a bond with an academic department and its faculty.

A university counseling center was the site for a study examining psychological and vocational issues of a diverse student clientele (N = 597). Lucas and Berkel sought to identify specific needs of diverse student populations, particularly measuring gender and multicultural differences. They also designed their study to compare student clients who persisted with counseling and those who prematurely ended their involvement.

There were no significant gender differences, but significance was found across racial groups. White students scored significantly higher than did Asian American students on vocational identity and vocational information, and higher scores for White students than for African American students were obtained regarding lack of vocational barriers. The scores of White students on client functioning correlated significantly with vocational identity, vocational information, and lack of vocational barriers. Asian American students' scores correlated with vocational identity only. African American students' client functioning scores of symptom distress and social role dysfunction correlated significantly with vocational identity. Symptom distress, intrapersonal problems, and work and school adjustment difficulties of White students were linked with all vocational concerns. African American students with vocational concerns did not report problems with anxiety or depression. Asian American students lacked clarity and stability of vocational interests, personality, talents, and goals and demonstrated a need for vocational information.

Regarding the persistence in the counseling aspect of this study, Lucas and Berkel found that clients with the greatest symptomatic distress and interpersonal problems tended to stop their counseling prematurely. Recommendations specifically for career centers involved providing vocational counseling sessions that reflect attention to empowerment and also various interventions, such as keeping a journal and developing genograms, to facilitate discussion regarding values and stereotypes held by diverse students. Lucas and Berkel noted that African American students did not express feelings of distress, although they tended to perceive occupational barriers. Asian American students had difficulty with decision making stemming from cultural factors.

Hull-Blanks et al. looked at the critical period of freshmen year as it relates to retention. Career goals, academic persistence decision, academic performance, self-esteem, educational self-efficacy, and school and career commitment of 401 freshmen were assessed using a variety of measurements. Findings indicated that defined job-related goals were highly related to persistence decisions, which led to the observation that clearly identified goals contribute to the successful completion of an education. An unexpected finding was that women had more job-related goals and fewer value-related goals. Conversely, men had more value-related goals and fewer job-related ones. Hull-Blanks et al. offered social expectations as an explanation. Men may focus on a value, such as providing for the family, as important. Women, who are not expected to be concerned with prestige, find job-related goals to be more socially accepted. Results reinforced the need for career-related programs for 1st-year students and supported current career counseling practices of providing self-assessment tools and other career resources.

Midcareer. Obtaining data from Britain's National Child Development Study, Dolton, Makepeace, and Marcenaro-Gutierrez looked at how early ability, educational attainment, and work experience may contribute to career progression. They focused on the determining factors of individual career progression by comparing the data of each participant at four different ages--11, 16, 33, and 42. Data for the earlier ages were derived from test and public examinations scores. Information at the latter ages was drawn from earning levels. Statistical analyses indicated several components that may contribute to a career progression measured by earnings. Academic performance at 11, educational achievement at 16, National Vocational Qualifications level, work experience, and job tenure all played a part in career progression. There were key gender differences. The impact of work experience on men's earnings was twice what it was for women. Men tended to gain 2% to 2.4% in earnings for each year of experience, compared with women who gained only 1%. Educational qualifications and additional schooling had a greater effect on women's earnings. Men's earning growth appeared to be influenced by ability and early educational achievement. These findings are notable because gender comparisons were based on identical characteristics.

Boswell, Boudreau, and Tichy tested their model of job change patterns called The Honeymoon-Hangover Effect. After experiencing low job satisfaction, a job change prompts high job satisfaction. The level of job satisfaction lessens with continued employment. A primarily White male sample of employed high-level managers from an executive search firm's database received measures of job satisfaction at 1-year intervals over 5 years. Voluntary job changes were recorded across a 5-year span. Boswell et al. concluded that results supported the honeymoon-hangover effect and a predictable pattern in job changes, and they presented implications for organizations and career planning professionals.

The hangover effect may also occur in higher education. As part of a longitudinal investigation of faculty identity development, Reybold interviewed nine faculty members who expressed both disillusionment with their academic careers and interest in leaving the profession. The interview narratives were analyzed using the constant comparative method. Reybold noted that a common disillusionment process was occurring for faculty in terms of motivation for and disruption of their professional work. The terms ideal and accomplishment express two types of motivating forces. The ideal force is intrinsic in nature, often characterized by a passion for one's work. The accomplishment force is more outwardly focused, characterized by extrinsic rewards of one's professional field. Corresponding disruptive forces lessen job satisfaction. Those faculty who are motivated by the ideal force experience disruptions as intrusions, interfering with professorial work. Accomplishment-driven faculty experienced disruptions as diminished productivity. Excerpts from interviews illustrated these two aspects.

Reybold maintained that conflict is fundamental to faculty life but that faculty experience conflict differently. Faculty comments included in the article exemplified motivation by the ideal force and by achievement and also revealed the conflict exacerbated by the reality and demands of academic life. Conflict is experienced more intensely by faculty who are motivated by the ideal yet are employed by a university structure that predominantly rewards achievement. Reybold concluded that inadequacy in ability is not driving faculty from academia; rather, it is disillusionment with the faculty role.

Career changes of "30-something" individuals in the United Kingdom were examined by Wise and Millward, using semistructured interviews. Ten participants spoke of experiences during their most recent career change. Three master themes evolved: continuity and discontinuity, values, and context influences. The first theme was characterized by positive, rejuvenating feelings and desires for using skills and past achievements in the next phase, assuring continued professional identity. Adjustment in a new environment was facilitated by an appreciation and recognition of skills, experience, and past achievements. Fulfillment of values proved to be a driving force for change. Work was seen as a reflection of personal values and identity. Due to enhanced self-awareness through maturity, career changers developed personal requirements for their next position. Contextual factors that could eliminate obstacles for the career changer, such as financial needs, were successfully negotiated. Support from others sustained change. Work priorities were reevaluated. Employment that allowed for a personal life was valued highly by men and women, with or without children.

Older adults. In a qualitative study, Noonan gave the population of older adults a voice as they commented on their current employment issues. A purposive sample of 37 older workers aged 55 and older were surveyed and interviewed on employment situations, perceptions, attitudes, values, and future work plans. Results were organized across nine themes: age discrimination and economic recession, financial concerns, concerns about health and energy, desire for part-time work, structure and meaningful activity, desire for specific work environments, impact of relational disruptions, repositioning, and work and identity. Findings included reported experiences or perceptions of age discrimination, insecurity about sufficient pensions, need for health insurance, apprehensions regarding the effect of health and energy on job commitments, a desire for life balance, and concern about time for other activities.

Ford and Orel noted that changes in the labor market may prompt employers to consider hiring older workers and cited research indicating that in 15 to 20 years, 1 out of 4 new hires will be older than 55. Pension, retirement plans, and social security issues compel workers to remain employed longer. Many retirees experience difficulties transitioning from a structured work routine to a leisure lifestyle. Men preferred work over retirement.

Rau and Adams looked at the recruitment of retirees for bridge employment (work after formal retirement). They studied workplace characteristics that may be attractive to the population, specifically, flexible work hours, explicit equal employment opportunity statements regarding mature workers, mentoring opportunities, and various interactions among these three conditions. A questionnaire completed by 120 university retirees, who had responded to job descriptions slightly revised to highlight different workplace characteristics, established that only flexible working arrangements were desirable to them.

Ulrich and Brott studied the experiences and decisions of 24 older workers employed in bridge jobs. Participants were over 62 and retired from long-term employment, and 71% of them had started bridge jobs within 2 months of retiring. The authors found that participants' decisions to pursue bridge employment was based on the desire to work on their terms, meaningful experiences, connections with previous careers, and financial needs. Benefits of bridge employment for participants included feeling better about themselves, a more balanced life, enjoyment of the work, and added financial resources. To transition into bridge jobs, the participants did not seek assistance from career counselors or through career-related workshops.

Recommendations for counseling older workers were provided by Kirk and Belovics (a), who reviewed previous research on career theories, employment counseling concerns, and resources for these clients. Factors that are unique to the older client included health status, physical and mental factors especially relating to occupational safety, visual and auditory issues, and lack of self-confidence and assertiveness. Prejudices and biases of others were issues for older workers, as were training needs. The appropriateness of commonly used assessment methods when working with older adults was also questioned. Kirk and Belovics (b) wrote a supplemental guide of 20 online resources for older adults.

Gender Perspectives

In their study, van der Velde, Bossink, and Jansen examined whether an employee's acceptance of international assignments would be determined by gender-related factors. Gender differences regarding acceptance of an international assignment and the willingness to follow a partner for a position overseas were studied across several variables: level of education, length of time with the employer; previous international experience; family factors; income; impact on career; priority placed on the career; the psychological contract between employee and employer; and role salience of career, partner, and parent. The authors concluded that there were significant gender differences and that rational choice and family power variables were more relevant for men. Of importance to women were life role salience and psychological contract elements. Regarding the willingness to accommodate one's career for a partner's transfer, all sets of variables proved to be significant predictors for men, whereas only rational choice and family power variables were significant for women.

Marler and Moen's study concentrated on gender differences regarding alternative employment arrangements. They sought to examine how gender-related beliefs and social contexts would affect alternative employment arrangements among men and women in either temporary or independent contractual work. The authors observed that although workforce demographics have changed, the traditional view of job expectations and gender-specific responsibilities within the family seemed to continue. Marler and Moen suggested that the standard career path was gender-based and intended for workers without family concerns. The authors expected that gender differences would determine participation in alternative employment assignments in terms of traditional gender norms, that is, women would more likely have family-related reasons for accepting these assignments and men would have work-centered reasons. Data were obtained from a 1995 and 1997 contingent work supplement survey.

Analyses revealed that 59% of the temporary agency sample was women. Temporary work was not the preferred working situation. Most temporary employees surveyed did not have benefits. Positions for independent contractors, which included benefits, were predominantly filled by men. These were considered preferred situations. Female temporary workers were more likely to have part-time schedules and live in households with higher family incomes, as compared to their male counterparts. Women in independent contract arrangements were more likely to work part-time, but incomes for these situations were comparable to those of male contractors. Significant gender differences were noted in reasons given by those surveyed for choosing alternative employment arrangements. Women in temporary and independent contractual work mentioned family issues as the reason for choosing this arrangement. Only 10% of temporary male workers and male independent contractors referred to family as an explanation for the alternative mode of employment. Men in temporary agency or independent contractual arrangements were significantly more likely to identify work-related reasons. When comparing types of arrangements, both men and women working through temporary agencies mentioned they did so for economic reasons. Men and women independent contractors attributed their situations to work-related reasons. However, women in both arrangements were more likely than men to give family-related explanations for choosing their work arrangements. When reviewing preferences, married women temporary employees were more apt to favor alternatives to standard employment. There were no significant findings for standard employment and independent contracting comparisons for married men and women. When infant children were in the home, married independent contractors showed a significant preference for their employment type. Preference of both genders for independent contractual arrangements were strongly influenced by availability of health benefits and family and financial issues.

Men's occupational choices. Jome, Surething, and Taylor directed their study to advance understanding of the traditionality of men's occupational choices. The traditionality of the occupational choices of employed men was studied in terms of relationally oriented aspects of masculinity and gender-nontraditional, vocational interests. The sample consisted of 166 men who were employed full-time and who had a mean age of nearly 40 and a mean job tenure of 8.27 years. Surveys and other measures assessed traditional masculine gender role attitudes, discomfort with behaviors perceived as feminine, comfort level regarding intimate and emotional expressions with women and other men, work and family balance, and homophobia. The resulting distribution of occupational choices among the sample was 22% gender nontraditional, 31% gender neutral, and 48% gender traditional.

Jome et al. found that individuals who were more likely to express discomfort with gays and lesbians were less interested in people-oriented activities, were comfortable with expressive behavior toward other men, and were more apt to have traditionally male careers. Less homophobic attitudes, more people-related interests, and more conflict with expression of affection with other men were exhibited by men in nontraditional careers. Men with an interest in interpersonal and service-oriented careers were employed in female-dominated professions. Men in male-dominant occupations tended to be more homophobic. The Jome et al. study supported previous research and demonstrated that masculine, gender-role attitude (emotionally or relationally focused aspects of masculinity) and career interests in interpersonal vocations were key factors in career choice decisions.

Women's issues. O'Neil and Bilimoria proposed an age-linked model of women's career development. They examined career patterns, career locus, career contexts, and career beliefs developed over the life span by interviewing 50 professional women with a mean age of 42. Interviews were structured to bring to light career milestones and transitions including influential relationships, successes, failures, challenges, and opportunities. The results were reported for three age-related groups: early (Phase 1), middle (Phase 2), and later (Phase 3) career stages. Two types of career patterns were included to accommodate both traditional and boundaryless careers. An ordered career pattern was considered to be one that was stable, predictable, and hierarchical. An emergent career pattern was the term used to reflect proactive career moves, unexpected turns, and career stop gaps. Data regarding external career locus (belief that success is dependent on external factors) and internal career locus (belief that success is directed by oneself) were also collected. The influence of organizational, social, and relational contexts and career beliefs was considered.

O'Neil and Bilimoria found that combination career pattern results were marginally significant in the mid-career cohort, whereas women in the Phase 3 group had significantly more ordered career patterns. An internal-oriented locus of control was gradually replaced by an external mode with the advancement of one's career, with women in the Phase 1 group having the highest internal career-focus results. Relational context was highest among women in Phase 2 and lowest among women in the Phase 1 group. The impact of organizational structures was negatively experienced by 81% of the sample. Phase 2 women reported significantly higher incidents of sexual discrimination and harassment. The economy as a societal construct affected almost 50% of the women and overwhelmingly affected women in Phase 1. Parental influences on career and life choices were apparent for all groups but weakened with age. Influences by spouse or partner were reported by over 66% of women, with Phase 2 members having significantly higher accounts. An overwhelming number of Phase 1 women were considering how children might affect their careers. More women in the Phase 2 and 3 groups made career accommodations for children.

O'Neil and Bilimoria also looked at how members of their sample would define meaning and success. Personal fulfillment and happiness were expressed by more than half the women in the sample, predominantly from the two earlier age groups. An overview of the findings led to the conclusion that different manifestations could be identified among the three phases. The subsequent age-linked model of women's career development consisted of the idealistic achievement period (Phase 1), pragmatic endurance stage (Phase 2), and pragmatic endurance period (Phase 3). Based on the information from the sample, this model may be applicable only to professional women.

Cook, Hepner, and O'Brien addressed the multicultural and gender influences in women's career development from an ecological perspective. They extracted four major subsystems from the ecological model of Bronfenbrenner (1977). Career-relevant beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors are strongly influenced by micro- and macrosystems. Self-perception and awareness of career possibilities occurs through childhood interactions (microsystem) and social and cultural beliefs of appropriateness (macrosystem). The macrosystem provides messages that perpetuate career stereotypes.

Cook et al. described life phases (early childhood, adolescence, and young adulthood) from the ecological system perspective, stressing influences of immediate environments, blatant and subtle forms of sexism and racism, biases, and role commitments. The authors emphasized issues of race, ethnicity, and sexual orientation and considered obstacles and coping strategies occurring at micro and macro levels. An implication for counselors is a heightened awareness in their practice of the ecological dynamics that influence career behavior.

Creamer and Laughlin chose the theoretical framework of self-authorship to explain how women interpret career information from various sources. Although cognitive in nature, self-authorship is distinct from agency (actions) and self-efficacy (self-confidence beliefs). It is concerned with processes of judgment. Citing the work of Baxter Magolda (1999), Creamer and Laughlin described self-authorship as "an ability to construct and evaluate knowledge claims in context, an ability to construct an internal identity separate from but sensitive to external factors, and an ability to genuinely consider others' perspectives without being consumed by them" (p. 16). Interviews with 40 college women focused on different dimensions of self-authorship (interpersonal, epistemological, and intrapersonal) and included an opportunity for participants to describe a difficult decision-making situation. For the interpersonal dimension, women identified influential people. Nearly all the students identified one or both parents as influential in career choice, whereas advisers and counselors were named by just 3 participants. The epistemological dimension involved criteria used to make decisions. Two externally focused categories evolved from the interviews: a need for approval and trust and respect for authority. Only a small number of women expressed a sense of interdependence. The intrapersonal dimension centered on response to conflicting advice. A significant number of participants stated that they would not listen to conflicting advice or would just listen to be polite. The authors interpreted this response as an illustration that these women could not manage different viewpoints and were in the early stages of self-authorship. When a situation involving judgment was described, the women articulated positive and negative experiences. Negative experiences were found to be detrimental to confidence levels and to the development of decision-making skills.

Several key findings were stressed by Creamer and Laughlin. Self-authorship had significant influence on career decision making. A successful decision-making experience fostered the development of self-authorship. Parents were found to serve vital roles in the development of self-authorship. College women did not view academic and career advisers as authority figures; that is, advisers were not considered to be trustworthy sources of information because they did not know the student personally. Many students might not have considered the advice of academic and career advisers because college students have yet to fully develop the cognitive process to handle diverse viewpoints. Creamer and Laughlin supported self-authorship as a reliable theoretical framework for studying student behavior and choices.

Although many researchers study career advancement, Swanberg and Logan's research focused on the ability of women to secure and retain jobs. A poignant study of victims of domestic violence and their patterns of employment painted a bleak employment outlook for these women. Thirty-two women from rural and urban communities who had been employed within the last 2 years or who were currently employed were interviewed. Their employers were primarily from the service and trades industries. All the women had experienced psychological abuse and physical aggression, 88% of them severe, from partners.

Swanberg and Logan found that attempts of men to interfere with women's employment occurred before, during, and after work. Partners prevented 58% of the women from going to work through physical restraint, severe beatings, and other aggressive behaviors such as preventing sleep, obstructing the use of the car, and destroying clothing they would wear to work. The majority of the women still attempted to go to work, even though they anticipated some form of abuse before work at least weekly. Forms of abuse during work included the partner showing up at work, harassing the women or their supervisors by phone, stalking, and other intimidating approaches such as demanding that the woman leave work immediately or physically beating her on the employer's property. Actions taken after work were the least frequent of the job interference behaviors. Emotional and physical abuse would occur after work, sometimes the consequence of the woman having spoken to clients or coworkers about being abused.

The consequences of this abuse for the women's job performance were evident. Over 50% missed work, some as frequently as three to four times a month, due to sleep deprivation, bruises, hospitalization, emotional distress, and depression. Some would call in sick, whereas others did not inform supervisors. Some never returned to their job. Ninety-one percent of the respondents reported that they had resigned from or been terminated from their job because of abuse in the previous 24 months. Women who resigned cited safety reasons for self and/or children, embarrassment regarding the abusive behavior, or the shame of being victims. When victims disclosed the abuse to coworkers or supervisors, they generally felt supported. Employers conveyed genuine concern that was demonstrated through formal and informal interventions. Disclosure occurred for safety reasons or because coworkers were already aware of the situation. Disclosure was not seen as an option by some women because of fear of job loss, a sense of shame, or a perception of their ability to independently manage their circumstances.

Kottke and Agars proposed four underlying processes that hinder the career advancement of women. First, social cognitions encompass gender stereotyping and social identity and are reported to be the most powerful construct for women's advancement. Gender stereotyping can be manifested in overt and subtle forms of sexism. Social identity that is gender based may lead to organizational bias and conflict, contributing to antagonistic views toward any initiatives introduced for women's professional development. Second, justice refers to legislative interventions that may be perceived as unjust by male employers, potentially cultivating hostility toward women. Third, threat rigidity occurs when advancement of women is seen as a threat to men's advancement, self-esteem, or masculine identity. Fourth, perceived utility of advancement plans must be recognized as being of value to the organization. Kottke and Agars offered organizational recommendations for designing and implementing practices for advancing women for each of the four processes. Suggestions for gender stereotyping included publicly addressing it, raising awareness, and scrutinizing hiring and promotion practices. Such activities would address threat rigidity as well. The authors challenged organizations to look at why women are not experiencing the same socialization as men (social identity). Perceptions of justice would be enhanced if organizations specifically stated requirements and procedures for decisions. The authors also suggested flexible benefit packages and addressing a range of employee needs.

Socialization and networking interactions that differ for men and women may be one of the reasons mentoring programs are important for female college presidents. Brown addressed the low representation of women at the presidential level of colleges and universities and explored mentoring relationships. A questionnaire was completed by 91 female presidents at independent colleges. Only 4.4% of the respondents were women of color; of these, all were African American. The majority were married and had children. Most of these women also attended one or more professional development programs that were designed to develop and strengthen college administrative skills.

Findings indicated that most of the respondents had a primary mentor, and more than half of those mentors were other college presidents. More than 66% of the primary mentors were male. Over 74% of the respondents stated that mentors singled them out, and 28.6% initiated these mentorships. While 63.1% reported having one to three mentors, and 15.5% had four mentors, only 21.4% were not mentored. Most of the female presidents had served as mentors to others, and 50.8% mentored both men and women. Older participants were more likely to serve as mentors than were their younger colleagues. The more experienced participants were also more prone to be mentors than were those with less experience. Brown concluded that mentorships are important to advancing women to presidential levels.

Some senior women are not advancing upward; they are transitioning into entrepreneurial ventures. Terjesen interviewed 10 senior women managers-turned-entrepreneurs, using a theoretical framework of human capital resources to explain their career transitions. Findings were organized in terms of embodied and embedded career capital. Embodied career capital is industry- or firm-specific and involves moving up in the traditional ladder structure. Embodied capital is not transferable to other career opportunities. Embedded capital is especially valuable in the boundaryless career plane, whereby individuals may leave organizations to increase marketability. Embedded career capital includes human capital and social dimensions that contribute to three ways of knowing: knowing how, knowing whom, and knowing why.

These three ways of knowing facilitated the transition of the women participants from management to entrepreneurship. Knowing how grew from corporate experience and positions of responsibility. Knowing whom was evident when only 4 of the 10 women ventured on their own into their own business. Others sought out partners based on competence. Knowing whom was also an asset for forging and strengthening mentorships. However, in terms of using social capital to build networks and maintain ties with colleagues, overall responses implied that there were few or no interactions with former coworkers or development of new relationships. Knowing why explained motivations. These women could readily describe reasons for their new career directions, often citing family commitments, freedom from corporate constraints, and flexibility.

Frame and Shehan looked at clergywomen's management of multiple roles in a primarily male career. Men in this position have traditionally depended on their wives to assume many responsibilities without cost to the congregation. However, clergywomen assume these dual roles alone, while balancing family responsibilities. Moreover, their profession is seen as a calling, a way of life, characterized by being available 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Sexism was also displayed by less desirable assignments being given more to clergywomen than to clergymen.

The authors found that one third of the United Methodist respondents at a national conference thought that being female affirmed desirable qualities of compassion, nurturing, caring, and mothering. However, gender had negative consequences for women in this profession, such as discrimination, issues of low status and pay, and lack of role models. Other challenges mentioned by respondents were establishing appropriate boundaries and balancing personal and family needs with professional responsibilities. The desire for more free time, cultivating a support structure, and opportunity for attending to their spiritual lives were also stated. Some respondents noted career-related stress in a profession for which there are no tangible measures of success. Clergywomen were concerned about finances, fatigue, loneliness, and isolation. Coping strategies for these women included establishing time for self, participating in support groups, seeking counseling and spiritual direction, and preserving a friendship network both internal and external to their church life. Frame and Shehan explained how career counselors can work with clergywomen or women expressing interest in ministry work by raising awareness of possible negative factors associated with their choice, expanding ministry career options, and encouraging informational interviews or shadowing experiences with other clergywomen.

Issues of Work and Family

When Diane Halpern was president of the APA in 2004, the issue of work and family took prominent place in her presidential address. She formed the APA Presidential Initiative on Work and Families, charged with reviewing and creating research-supported recommendations for all parties involved in this issue. The results of the task force can be found using this link: www.apa.org/work-family.

Halpern presented demographic data that revealed increased child and elder caregiving responsibilities in the United States and offered substantial research that disproves erroneous views on the reasons women work and the assumed detrimental effects their employment has on their children. Although child care remains predominantly the responsibility of mothers, the article demonstrated how fathers in dual earning households are increasingly more involved with children and care for elderly parents. Halpern also offered empirical support regarding business practices that create a family-friendly culture. Legal labor practices can actually be counterproductive in supporting family-friendly workplaces. Poorer members of society are especially vulnerable when practices are legal yet detrimental to the employee. For example, organizations can legally pay part-time workers less than full-time employees in the same position. Halpern maintained that the legal structure substantiates a belief that full-time employment is more highly valued. Several points in Halpern's address are pertinent to the field of vocational psychology. Work and family concerns are no longer segregated issues for a specific client population, but applicable to all clients, and it is the responsibility of practitioners to take a leadership role in advocacy on this issue.

Eby, Casper, Lockwood, Bordeaux, and Brinley performed content analysis of their literature review of 190 work-family studies from 1980 through 2002 and organized their findings under nine topics with subcategories. For example, under the topic area work-family conflict, Eby et al.'s subcategories included work-family conflict predictors, the physical and psychological consequences of conflict, and work-to-family and family-to-work conflict.

Winslow obtained data from the 1977 Quality of Employment Survey and the 1997 National Study of the Changing Workforce to explore prevalence and predictors of work-family conflict as well as gender perspectives during different time frames by comparing the two sets of data gathered 20 years apart. Winslow highlighted three major findings: (a) As expected from previous research and workforce changes, there were higher levels of work-family conflict reported in 1997; (b) there were no significant gender differences in perspectives from 1977 and 1997 (i.e., men and women in both samples reported similar levels of work-family conflict); and (c) single parents and married parents with working or nonworking spouses reported higher work-family conflict than did employees without children. The only trend emerging from data comparisons was the significantly higher level of work conflict reported by men in the latter study. Winslow explained this trend as a reflection of men taking on increasingly more family responsibilities, valuing time with families, and experiencing the dual pressures of being a good employee and a good father. Parenthood was a significant predictor of work-family conflict. Parents with children at home experienced higher levels of stress across gender and time. Winslow's findings reinforced Halpern's observation of the difficulty of coordinating parental and employee roles in the workplace as it is currently structured.

Work-family conflict spillover. In Voydanoff's (b) article on the relationship between work demands and work-family conflict, she explained that work-family conflict can take two forms: work-to-family conflict, when work demands interfere with family responsibilities; and family-to-work conflict, when family demands hinder work performance. Voydanoff (b) found that work-to-family conflict was higher among women, younger respondents, and non-Hispanic Whites. Time-based demands, such as extra work without notice and overnight travel, were positively related to work-to-family conflict, as were strain-based demands, such as concern about job security, time pressure, and workload pressure. Boundary-spanning demands were positively associated with both work-to-family and family-to-work conflicts. Unsupportive environments, commuting, and bringing work home were significant for both types of conflict. Voydanoff (b) concluded that integrative strategies to reduce work-family conflict are needed.

Work-family spillover was the topic of Keene and Reynolds's article. They used data from the 1992 National Study of the Changing Workforce to identity gender differences in negative family-to-work spillover. Four hypotheses for the study were (a) Workers with demands at home and work will likely experience negative family-to-work spillover; (b) quality of work would be negatively affected among workers with children, workers with little autonomy or flexibility, or workers with spouses whose job commitments detract from family responsibilities; (c) adjustments made by married workers will be detrimental to job performance; and (d) family spillover and its consequences will be influenced by a system that devalues women's participation in the workforce. The authors' analysis yielded several significant results. Women were significantly more likely to make work adjustments for family-issues. Frequent work adjustments were likely to result in poorer performance. Men and women who perceived negative effect on work performance due to family concerns were more likely to experience harmful work-related experiences and attitudes, such as job burnout and stress. Adults with children at home did experience greater work-family spillover and negative consequences than did other workers. Workers with some college credits or a bachelor's degree were more apt to see their work be affected from spillover than did those with lower academic attainment. Keene and Reynolds also discovered that limited job autonomy increases the risk of family-to-work spillover, as does having a demanding and fast-paced position.

Work-family conflict and psychological well-being. Voydanoff's (a) second study regarding work-family conflict emphasized the relationship between boundary spanning demands and resources and work-to-family conflict and perceived stress. Voydanoff (a) used the work-family border theory of Clark (2000) as her framework, which describes work and family domains as falling on a continuum between segmentation and integration. Boundary permeability contributed to boundary spanning demands, while boundary spanning resources are characterized by flexibility. The authors analyzed various demands and resources. Voydanoff (a) found that the most significant boundary spanning demand contributing to work-to-family conflict and perceived stress was commuting time. Overnight travel added to work-family conflict, but not to stress. Bringing work home or having career associates in the home were also highly significant for work-to-family and perceived stress. However, working at home as part of a routine work schedule was not seen as stressful nor was it positively related to conflict. Resources that appeared to be more effective in alleviating stress and conflict were time off for family and a supportive work-family culture in the organization. Formal workplace policies, such as work schedule flexibility, part-time options, or dependent care benefits, did not significantly ease stress or conflict.

Hammer, Cullen, Neal, Sinclair, and Shafiro took a different approach to spillover, focusing on the contribution of work-family positive spillover to psychological well-being. Positive spillover occurs when there arc beneficial effects of the overlap of family and work roles given that multiplicity of roles results in greater resources and support. Hammer et al. examined the effects of work-family interface on depression in a longitudinal study and found that positive spillover contributes to the emotional health of employee and spouse. Men and women who experienced high levels of positive spillover had fewer experiences with depressive symptoms. More positive emotions within the family led to positive feelings at work and less possibility of depression. Higher levels of positive spillover correlated with lower levels of depression of the spouse. Significant synchronous effects were found regarding family-to-work conflict and depression, but not for work-to-family conflict and depression of spouses. An unexpected significant synchronous result indicated that when greater family-to-work conflict is experienced by men, their depressive symptoms increased, but this did not hold true for women.

Another positive spillover term is work-family facilitation, which occurs when the experience and resources in one domain help the other. Grzywacz and Butler focused on work-to-family and job characteristics to test a theory of work-family facilitation developed from an ecological perspective. Specifically, they investigated how job characteristics support work-family facilitation and whether resources beneficial to family life may be more accessible based on processes and structures of the job. Jobs characterized by autonomy and high skill level requirements contributed significantly to higher levels of work-family facilitation. Work involving higher social skills and skill variety also enhanced higher levels of work-family facilitation. Grzywacz and Butler concluded that work-family facilitation is not a bipolar opposite of work-family conflict, but a distinct concept calling for its own theoretical framework.

Roehling, Jarvis, and Swope looked at a representative sample of Hispanic, African American, and White populations from the 1997 National Study of the Changing Workforce. They found the greatest gender disparity regarding negative family-to-work spillover among Hispanics, with Hispanic women experiencing higher levels of conflict. Similar results occurred with work-to-family spillover when parental status was considered. Hispanic mothers again had higher levels of conflict. The differences in work-to-family spillover scores between Hispanic men and women with children were twice as high as they were for Hispanic men and women without children. Gender disparity regarding family-to-work spillover among African Americans was similar to that among White respondents. Findings regarding the Hispanic participants may be attributed to a culture that still adheres to traditional views of gender roles, defining men as providers and women as caregivers.

Grzywacz, Quandt, Arcury, and Marin focused on work-family issues of Mexican immigrants who were working in predominantly blue-collar jobs in North Carolina. The authors sought to determine if experiences differed by gender and if work-family issues were detrimental to mental health. Results showed that separation from family and their home community was particularly stressful for immigrants of both genders. Work-family experiences were also similar for men and women. A higher level of work-family conflict contributed to more stress, anxiety, and depression.

Work-family conflict and relationships. Crossfield, Kinman, and Jones surveyed 74 couples from the United Kingdom, measuring workload demands, quality standards, support, job commitment and satisfaction, work-related perceptions and communication between partners, and psychological well-being. No significant gender differences were found regarding various aspects of work, nor were there differences regarding job commitment. Higher levels of demands were predominantly associated with greater anxiety and depression for both genders. No differences were found regarding psychological well-being. When considering the influence of job demands on the well-being of partners, Crossfield et al. found that job demands negatively affected their well-being whereas job satisfaction had positive effects. Men tended to experience more incidences of depression and anxiety, whereas women only incurred depression. Communication issues affected the psychological well-being of women. When perceiving little understanding or helpfulness in communications with partners, women reported higher levels of anxiety and depression regarding their own positions and greater anxiety concerning their partner's jobs. Women exhibited outwardly focused behavior, wanting to talk about the stress, whereas men tended to become withdrawn, an inwardly focused behavior.

Perrone, Webb, and Blalock examined role congruence and role conflict and their influence on work, marital, and life satisfaction. The authors found that life satisfaction, marital satisfaction, and work satisfaction were all positively correlated. Role congruence was positively associated with life satisfaction, but negatively correlated with work-family conflict. Marital satisfaction was also negatively correlated with work-family conflict. Women spent more time in the parent and homemaker roles. Men spent significantly more time in career and leisure roles. Women identified the parent role as more stressful, followed by career role, whereas men had the opposite rankings.

Work-family conflict has been studied mostly in Western countries, but Luk and Shaffer examined the work and family domain stressors of 248 Hong Kong Chinese employees and their spouses. The authors observed that those who were more engaged in their family role found it easier to focus on family if the organizations and supervisors were perceived to be nonsupportive of family-friendly policies. Luk and Shaffer noted that if employees had supportive supervisors and organizations, they would be strongly obliged to produce high quality work so as not to disappoint their supervisors and organizations.

Midlife professional women whose spouses were in positions of equal status to theirs were the foci of Gordon and Whelan-Berry's exploratory study. The opinion of 22% of the women in the sample was that their spouse's career should take precedence, 19% thought their own career had precedence, and 58% reported that careers of husband and wife had equal importance. Regarding support to family and household, the women's responses ranged from the spouse having little participation, to equal sharing by partners, to the spouse having primary responsibility. Women tended to describe their spouse's contribution as managing (planning and coordinating household and family activities) or doing (performing tasks). Using descriptions from interviews as a basis, Gordon and Whelan-Berry categorized the distribution of type of spousal support: (a) uninvolved spouses (14%), (b) helpmate spouses (50%), (c) egalitarian spouses (28%), and (d) coordinator spouses (8%). The authors concluded that the women were pleased with their spouses' support and "knowing that husbands valued them and their careers helped them deal with the challenges of balancing the many facets of their lives" (Gordon & Whelan-Berry, p. 921).

Lachance, Brassard, and Tetreau studied work-family conflict among professional men and women whose ages and job titles were equivalent. They found more similarities than differences between genders and noted that some careers differed because individuals were following the socialization process of traditional role models.

Konrad, Yang, Goldberg, and Sullivan conducted a longitudinal study of male and female students pursuing their master's of business administration. The authors expected that these students anticipated a high degree of career involvement and role conflict and that marital and parental status would result in work-family role conflict, leading to a change in job attribute preferences, job choices, advancement, and earnings. The authors' hypotheses were not supported. Family responsibilities did not affect career outcomes for participants of either gender. Acknowledging the early career stages of the individuals in this sample, the authors speculated that as careers progressed, family matters might have a more significant impact on careers.

Industry-specific work-family conflict. In Finland, Mauno, Kinnunen, and Piitulainen explored perceptions of work-family culture across economic sectors, industries, and gender, anticipating that an organization's attitude toward work-family issues would affect self-reported well-being of employees. Employers used for the study were a municipal social and health care department, a municipal education department, a paper mill, and an information technology company.

Mauno et al. applied the work of C. A. Thompson, Beauvais, and Lyness (1999). C. A. Thompson et al. maintained that an organizational work-family culture of shared beliefs, assumptions, and values shaping the integration of work and family has three dimensions: managerial support, career consequences, and organizational time demands. Mauno et al. found significant results within and across industries and between genders. Male employees of public sectors perceived managers as more supportive regarding family responsibilities than did their female coworkers. Conversely, women at private companies perceived managers as more supportive in the area of work-family issues than did men. Public sector employees perceived fewer negative outcomes from addressing family issues than did those in private sectors. Of the two private companies, the paper mill employees experienced more negative career consequences if they took advantage of family-friendly policies. The work-family culture in their place of employment was perceived more positively by public employees than by those working in companies. The authors found a significant relationship between positive work-family culture and job satisfaction.

Family-friendly interventions for work-family conflict. Shorter work schedules (6-hour shifts or flexible time reduction) were piloted in 19 Finnish municipalities between 1996 and 1998. Anttila, Natti, and Vaisanen analyzed the effects of this change on work-family interactions for 858 participants, most of whom were women. The authors reviewed data from interviews and evaluative questionnaires. Three groups were included in their sample: employees on 6-hour shifts; employees with shorter, flexible work arrangements; and a control group. They considered how working arrangements might affect work-family interactions. They also sought to explore the societal context (work schedules) as a socially constructed and gendered practice within the Finnish work culture.

Anttila et al. concluded that shorter hours did reduce levels of work-family conflict. Employees with children eased work-family conflict by increasing time for children and daily routines. When socioeconomic status was considered, change in work-family conflict was not experienced by upper-class white-collar workers but was noted by blue-collar or lower-class white-collar employees. The comparison between two types of reduced-hour arrangements showed that employees on the 6-hour shifts experienced lower levels of work-family conflict than did the workers using the flexible time approach. Self-evaluations revealed that employees with flexible work hours found this type of work arrangement to be important for personal and leisure activities. Those with fixed 6-hour shifts explained the importance of their schedules from a workplace perspective (e.g., improved customer service). The latter consequence may be due to overall organizational change to accommodate 6-hour shifts.

Behson looked at both formal and informal organizational support systems referred to in Mauno et al., empirically testing the systems against each other. Behson expected that informal support found within the workplace would have more influence on job satisfaction, work-family conflict, stress, intentions to change jobs, and absenteeism than would formal practices. Job autonomy, manager support, and career consequences (C. A. Thompson et al., 1999) represented means of providing informal organizational support. Formal organizational support was defined as work schedule flexibility and related benefits (e.g., employer-sponsored day care). Job satisfaction, work-to-family conflict, stress, turnover intentions, and absenteeism were dependent variables.

As expected, the informal avenues for work-family support were stronger predictors for all dependent variables, with the exception of absenteeism. No significant correlations were found between absenteeism and any of the independent variables. The three informal support systems accounted for 95% of the variance in each of the four remaining employee outcomes. Behson observed that formal practices are not effective if the organizational culture is perceived as unsupportive of family responsibilities. Organizations that cultivate job autonomy and managerial support and lessen perceptions of negative consequences lead to positive employee outcomes.

Cinamon and Rich created a work-family conflict intervention program for novice teachers and their supervisors with five goals: raise managers' awareness; enhance managers' understanding of family-friendly policy; contribute to the understanding of novice teachers, who would be more apt to have work-family concerns; improve the skills and attitudes of novice teachers, enabling a blending of professional and personal roles; and increase the self-efficacy of these teachers regarding how to manage work-family conflict. Evaluations showed that the participants valued having information and experiences, learning new skills that would improve the balance between work and family, and enhancing self-awareness of life roles and coping styles.

Employees who have responsibility for the care of older adults is another pressing issue for employees. Sahibzada, Hammer, Neal, and Kuang looked at whether role combinations that included both elder care or child care and a work-family culture (i.e., a work environment of an organization that values and supports the integration of work and family) contributed to job satisfaction and the availability of support. They found that role combinations and work-family culture have a moderating effect on the relationship between workplace supports and job satisfaction. Unexpectedly, the relationship was strongest when employees with elder care roles worked in an environment they perceived as unsupportive. Job satisfaction increased as availability of workforce supports increased. Job satisfaction of employees with elder care/worker roles in a supportive work environment slightly decreased as workplace supports increased. The authors surmised that workplace support resources can be a significant predictor of job satisfaction even when a supportive work-family culture is not present. When the work-family culture was positive, all groups experienced higher job satisfaction.

Trends in managerial practices have led to a flexible workforce in which more employees are freelance workers under short-term contracts. Cooper questioned whether belonging to this flexible workforce of teleworkers (working from home) and the self-employed is family friendly. These flexible working arrangements are dependent both on technology that must remain current and on machinery that works properly. Many individuals experience this kind of technological dependency as anxiety-provoking and stressful. Moreover, being a part of the flexible workforce isolates workers. They are physically removed from social interactions with colleagues. A further complication of this work arrangement is the impact on home life. Conflicting demands must be negotiated, work space and time delineated, and an informal contract between employer and employee regarding family and work time must be understood. The authors described a consequence for both work and family of this workforce trend as the self-responsibility to balance work and family, without formal or informal supportive systems.

Moshavi and Koch considered whether family-owned business can provide and support family-friendly systems for employees who are not part of the owner's family. A family business has required personal sacrifices and blurred boundaries for the owners who established it. Family business owners may not have the same awareness of their employees' need for family-friendly practices. Moshavi and Koch investigated how these business owners managed work-family conflicts among nonfamily employees. Their findings confirmed that family-owned business was negatively related to an organizational adoption of work-family practices.

Work-life balance--the next generation. Several of the previously reviewed articles indicated a change in preferences for work-life balance among male workers. A study by Bosco and Bianco focused on Generation Y lifestyle choices. This generation is the first wave of adults entering the workplace whose mothers were more likely to make the choice to work outside the home. The authors examined the influence of these maternal work parents on their children's life preferences. Social learning theory (Bandura, 1986) supported the authors' expectation that having the experience of being part of a family whose mother worked outside of the home (experiential and vicarious learning) would have an impact on participants' choices regarding career and family. No significant differences were found for either gender regarding parental education or family income. Participants' choice of lifestyles for themselves and future spouses were related to maternal work patterns. Although men's choices did not appear to be influenced by maternal working roles, women did choose a lifestyle similar to that of their mothers. Maternal working patterns did have an impact on the lifestyles that men preferred for their spouses, indicating a preference for their spouse to have a lifestyle similar to that of the men's mothers.

Counseling/Vocational Psychology

The Society for Vocational Psychology is a formal section of the APA's Division 17, Counseling Psychology. Thus, when Bluestein, Goodyear, Perry, and Cypers wrote that this counseling specialty is "vulnerable," career counseling professionals should pay attention. This observation emanates from "the fact that several solid programs have been forced to phase out or to convert to combined-integrated programs" (Bluestein et al., p. 632). Although the number of accredited programs grew to 73, "30% of the programs that have ever been started within the field have been discontinued" (Bluestein et al., p. 632). Faculty must make the effort to monitor the fit of program goals with the values and objective of the institutional departments or colleges that support the discipline.

In a survey of current career counseling practice, Stewart found that practitioners with a master's degree (n = 151) reported significantly larger career counseling caseloads than did clinicians with a doctorate (n = 150). Those with an exclusive emphasis on career counseling, mostly master's-level practitioners, used a person-centered or cognitive-behavioral theoretical orientation. No respondent reported using a specific career counseling theory. Master's-level counselors asked clients for more information about the client's personality and values, whereas doctoral-level respondents asked for more family information from the client.

  Although the APA and ACA have standards for accrediting training
  programs that both specify the role of career counseling training, to
  what extent do students of doctoral and master's programs eventually
  work in settings with systematically different philosophies, skills,
  and values concerning the role of career counseling. (Stewart, p. 13)

With career counseling shifted to career centers and staffed by master's-level practitioners, doctoral students may not be able to obtain career practicum experiences because doctoral-level supervision is unavailable.

Standards and Ethics of Practitioners and Educators

A study by Foster, Young, and Hermann investigated the work activities associated with the American School Counselor Association's National Standards for School Counseling Programs. The results should be very disturbing to career counselors because this sample of National Certified School Counselors only reported three career development work activities as very important and which they highly promote. But these work activities, in fact, are identical to those of the academic development of students--facilitate students' development of decision-making skills, identify students' support system, and plan and conduct classroom guidance. As we read the data in the tables, not 1 of the 17 work activities unique to career development was rated above moderate importance to these school counselors. Only 12 career work activities were occasionally performed, and 5 activities were rarely performed. The latter are provide career counseling for students with disabilities, use computerized career counseling resources, evaluate occupational skills, use the Internet in career counseling, and facilitate students' development of job search skills. Foster et al. concluded: "The majority of items rated by the experts as highly promoting students' career development were rated somewhat important to rarely performed work activities" (p. 319).

In their article, Trusty, Niles, and Carney spoke of the importance of middle school students' educational and career planning being supported by career theory. "If students do not plan and behave in ways consistent with their postsecondary educational goals, or if they have no goals, then the negative consequences fall to students" (Trusty et al., p. 138). The connection of the two goals was very intentional in its link with the longitudinal and comprehensive perspective of career development. However, unless school counselors advocate for a collaboration of administrators, teachers, and family, the students' goals articulated in their educational and career plans will not be effectively achieved.

The LEAP program--Liberal Education and America's Promise: Excellence for Everyone as a Nation Goes to College--sponsored by the Association of American Colleges and Universities, promotes professional success as the primary reason for going to college. College is important for getting the first job and for career advancement and success. (See Theoretical Outcomes in the Career Theory and Concepts section where subjective and objective success are differentiated.) However, Humphreys and Davenport noted in their findings that this emphasis on success produced high levels of stress among college students to prepare for the job market as well as among high school students to pick their goals and specific choice of major. A repeated view of those associated with the LEAP program is that general education course requirements detract from a student's major rather than enhance it.

Johnson and Chope wrote an article to make career counselors aware of how to serve individuals who are troubled by wrongdoing in their work settings and give them suggestions on what they can counsel these individuals to do about it. They cited a British study that revealed a third of the employees working in government, nonprofit organizations, or business were troubled by practices that challenged their personal ethics enough to force them to consider whether they would stop working in a particular place of employment. Cited were the six options available to clients who see wrongdoing: be quiet, talk internally or talk externally, regardless of whether you stay or leave.

Global Perspectives on Vocational Guidance

This section highlights results from a 2-day symposium organized by the National Career Development Association and the International Association for Educational and Vocational Guidance.

Professional issues. According to Savickas, Van Esbroeck, and Herr, one of the most significant issues that some countries report is a serious shortage of trained counseling staff, and thus they look to technologies to fill the gap. However,

  the shortage of career counselors, or maybe lack of counselors
  interested in career work, is problematic.... Even in the United
  States, a surprising number of counselor education programs have a
  single course at the master's-degree level and no course at the
  doctoral level. (Savickas et al., p. 79)

Hartung noted two other common cross-national concerns besides counselor training and human resources: career service delivery and resources and sources of support. But Goodman and Hansen observed that addressing these concerns depends on the nation's size and policies. Four service delivery categories cited were national programs with several components; large, but more specific programs, serving a national population; smaller programs serving diverse populations; and focused programs such as career centers. Watts argued that government policy makers must see career guidance services as providing a public good to society as a whole in order to support them financially.

Career theory. Guichard and Lenz set forth seven theoretical and conceptual approaches within career theory: action theory, self-construction model, transition model, dynamics of entering the workforce, narrative in career guidance, dilemma approach, and interactive identity construction. These authors noted that the conceptualizations were quite distinct from the methods and tools that counselors use in their daily work. To the above seven approaches, Amundson would add system theory.

Career interventions and practice. Feller, Russell, and Whichard stated, "It is interesting that despite the differences in cultures, religions, economies, political systems, and education structures, many countries face similar challenges when designing and implementing career development programs" (p. 36). These authors identified five considerations when adapting a career intervention for use in countries other than those for which it was designed: (a) recognize that values and belief systems are unique to a specific culture; (b) male and female role expectations differ in the workplace; (c) age and time of making career decisions differ with a country's educational structures; (d) the strength of the countries' economies varies, policies differ, and tolerance for the amount of unrest due to unemployment is variable; and (e) personal agency or individualism, family influence, and expectations of child and parent affect career certainty and indecision.

Career assessment. M. Watson, Duarte, and Glavin argued that "Starting with a cultural point of origin promotes the development of culture-specific-measures that are based on the values, attitudes, and belief systems of the culture within which an individual is operating" (p. 33). Because South African researchers have established that the structure of Holland's hexagonal model is "misshapen" (not in its theoretical circular order) for Black adolescents and that the specific order of Holland's RIASEC typology could not be maintained when working with Black adolescents, M. Watson et al. argued that the SDS first needs to prove its cultural specificity. This group concluded, "the actual test development should take place at the grassroots level, by skilled developers within the culture of origin" (M. Watson et al., p. 34).

Technology. Distance counseling on the Internet will increase, and its quality will be enhanced with the credentialing of Distance Certified Counselors. Also, general public users of computer-based career guidance systems can benefit from available occupational and educational information. Harris-Bowlsbey and Sampson provided a detailed and worthwhile elaboration of those individuals who do not yet have the skills for effective use of advanced career resources. In their case, although the Internet is a cost-saving means to reach large numbers of people, it may not be the best solution.

Professional Issues: Summary and Conclusion

We found 34 articles on work-family issues (the next highest number was 17 on mentoring) in our database of all articles, indicating that this is a considerable area of concern and interest. The educational preparation of career counselors must include training in work-family matters. When you build a house, you want a solid foundation. In life span development, it is obvious that childhood influences on vocational developments need research attention. The type of employment--standard, temporary, or contractual--has an impact on everyone. Temporary work arrangements reflected considerable job segregation by gender. Preference of both genders for independent contractual arrangements was strongly influenced by health benefits, family, and financial issues. In regard to standards and ethics, simply having career development standards does not necessarily result in school counselors working toward their implementation. In the field of counseling/vocational psychology, there is the fear that, despite the image that all is well, the shrinking number of programs at prestigious institutions is not a positive sign. Is career development and counseling a one-course discipline? Does this mean that the richness of the field will be distilled into a single course offering?

Career Theory and Concepts

How Do the Career Theories Reflect a Response to Social Justice Observations?

Blustein, McWhirter, and Perry contributed a rich, comprehensive, and thought-provoking article challenging the assumptions and practices of professionals in the vocational psychology field. Referring to the work of Prilleltensky (1997), Blustein, McWhirter, et al. proposed that the emancipatory communication (EC) approach be used as a framework for future theory development, research, and practice within the vocational psychology field.

Referring to Frank Parsons's service commitment to immigrants and the working class, Bluestein, McWhirter, et al. challenged vocational psychologists to look beyond the career concerns of the well-educated segment toward "an activist social agenda" (p. 143). To respond to vocational issues of all societal members, the counseling profession must also examine systems and structures that influence the working lives of diverse populations. An EC approach supports the research of work--how people make a living and sustain a livelihood and the efforts to affect environmental conditions through social change. Four approaches (traditional, empowering, postmodern, and emancipatory communication) proposed by Prilleltensky for examining the "moral implications of the process of psychology" (p. 149) were presented by Bluestein, McWhirter, et al. Proposing an integration of EC and social cognitive career theory (SCCT), Blustein, McWhirter, et al. added the perspective of targeting efforts to identify and remove unfair practices, policies, and systems. They encouraged a social justice mission in theory development and the research agenda as part of the shared responsibility of professionals in the vocational psychology field.

Colleagues responded to Blustein, McWhirter, et al. Gainor stressed the moral imperative to implement a social justice agenda and pointed to the counseling psychology academic programs, which scarcely address social advocacy or discourage social justice activity. Lui and Ali contributed a social class and classism framework and suggested that the theoretical aspects of social class are pertinent to the EC approach: economic cultures, upward classism, downward classism, lateral classism, and internalized classism. They also called for vocational psychologists to begin discussions on defining what constitutes a "good job" for clients. They argued that a good job does not necessarily evoke a "good life" and challenged the assumptions that higher status jobs are preferred to lower status occupations. The emphasis on upwardly mobile jobs has put a damper on research that would review and identify positive aspects of jobs not regarded as prestigious.

Borgen redefined Prilleltensky's work as a paradigm, rather than a framework. Yet, Borgen maintained that it need not displace old concepts, noting that conflicting theoretical assumptions in the field of psychology do coexist. He also rejected a logical analysis of the EC approach, preferring "to suspend the scholar's need for logical consistency and nuance and to proceed with what works for building more comprehensive and explanatory theories for removing more barriers to social justice and for helping more clients" (Borgen, p. 199). Borgen recommended the women's movement as a prototype for social change. He applauded researchers, especially the research of Betz, whose work formed social cognitive career theory and raised awareness of the barriers that restrict the career options for women. Subsequently, a transformation in the career counseling field occurred. He also commended Blustein, McWhirter, et al. "for taking the fuller spirit of Parsons ... often lost in cryptic three-step slogans ... and moving it forward through the spirit and passion" (Borgen, p. 205) of their work.

Sloan suggested the incorporation of critical and global dimensions into the EC approach. These key dimensions are

  (a) improvement of working conditions and the defense of worker's
  rights, (b) training of the unemployed and underemployed for emerging
  types of work, (c) democratization of both the workplace and the
  economic process related to investment in the sphere of production,
  and (d) creation of employment related to the meeting of human needs.
  (Sloan, p. 209)

These tasks extend the boundaries of the traditional professional roles of vocational psychologists. Sloan also proposed that vocational psychologists consider their field as an interdisciplinary social science.

McWhirter, Blustein and Perry provided their own response to Borgen, Liu and Ali, Sloan, and Gainor, acknowledging and accepting several suggestions to further the social justice agenda.

Frank Parsons

Both Pope and Sveinsdottir wanted people to know the personal side of Frank Parsons, credited with the founding of career counseling. Parsons has been described as a social reformer. He was fired as a professor of economics and social sciences at Kansas State Agricultural College because of his political views. He was an excellent teacher, a writer with unusual talents, and a man of good personal character. The only reason given for his dismissal was that he espoused a school of economic thought not endorsed by the majority of Kansas Republicans.

Parsons grew up in economic hard times. His mother died, and he was separated from his father at an early age and raised by two maiden aunts. He completed his training as a civil engineer at Cornell University. Unable to find employment, Frank Parsons worked in an iron mill, taught school, studied law, and was admitted to the Massachusetts Bar Association. However, his intensive studying made him ill and took a toll on his vision. He ran for mayor of Boston on the Socialist ticket and received less than 1% of the votes. It was toward the end of his short life (he died in his 50s) that Parsons founded the Vocational Bureau at the Boston Civic Service House. Possibly, the nontraditional mind-set of Parsons is what Bluestein, McWhirter, et al. are calling for to examine existing career theory and underlying concepts.

Developmental Theory

Schultheiss, Palma, and Manzi investigated the relatively unexplored area of childhood career development using Super's theory. Using data from fourth and fifth graders, their findings supported Super's dimensional model. However, they suggested that there may be fewer and more parsimonious dimensions than originally hypothesized. Children's reflections on prominent career tasks and influences revealed eight of the nine dimensions (all but curiosity) of the growth state. The analysis of Schultheiss et al. showed that the total number and names of their domains do not match the nine dimensions of Super exactly, with the dimension curiosity not emerging. Time perspective and planning were collapsed into one topic. The self-concept domain integrated two of Super's dimensions, interests and self-concepts, with another domain emerging, conceptions of work, that Super had not originally identified. In the concluding discussion, the authors noted: "Decision making, although not one of Super's nine dimensions, is central to his development model in that the nine dimensions are thought to contribute to decision making" (Schultheiss et al., p. 258).

In an autobiographical narrative, Zytowski illustrated the function of relational elements in Super's stages of career development. He offered a foundation for developing a comprehensive taxonomy of relational components that contribute to an individual's career development. Reflecting on the literature and the influence of a wide range of people playing varying roles is understandable, but Zytowski noted that the way in which these roles actually influence a person goes unspecified in the career development literature. Zytowski eventually selected role model as his working concept, rather than a current popular construct social support because of the potential of capturing and connecting resultant involvements and influences. He also noted that Super did not emphasize decision making as a person navigates the life stages. Zytowski described relational behaviors as actively supporting, nudging, and so forth, which people experience as personal influences in decisions. He then introduced the concept of the mentoring role, which is not formally incorporated into career development theory but is a major construct in industrial-organizational psychology.

Perrone used Super's life-span, life-space theory to organize a literature review of the work-family interface of same-sex, dual-earner couples or families. The author covered the roles of worker, partner, parent, stepparent, and caregiver.

The Person-Environment Fit Model and Holland's Theory

Although Neufeld et al. acknowledged Holland's theory as the traditional view of P-E involvement, they reviewed recent approaches to incorporate positive, strength-based environmental factors into conceptualizations of human functioning. They claimed that these beliefs, based on research, lead to an alternate model of P-E fit in which the engagement construct emerges. The quality of a P-E relationship is determined by the extent to which negotiation, participation, and evolution processes occur during the interaction and replace the static notion of fit attributed to the Holland approach. Neufeld et al. proposed that the engagement construct was the force mediating between P-E fit and the potential outcomes resulting from the interactions. Thus the engagement of negotiation, participation, and evaluation are the active ingredients that stimulate the release of positive outcomes in any P-E interaction.

In a theoretical article, Miller and Miller explored the relationship between Holland's RIASEC dimensions of personality and individual decision-making styles. The authors believe that the major factor that differentiates theoretical models is the emphasis placed on the process of decision making. They set forth individual decision-making styles based on personality types. First is a rational approach when Realistic, Investigative, and Conventional personality types prevail. These are systematic individuals who, after data collection, should analyze data externally for Conventional types, or internally for Realistic and Investigative types, to weigh the alternatives in deciding which occupation comes closest to fitting their lifestyles. The second is a nontraditional or less rational approach whereby Artistic, Social, and Enterprising types prevail. This approach involves reflection, imagination, and creativity. It involves a holistic approach using both the left and the right brains. These individuals are spontaneous while they collect and analyze data and should do so internally for Artistic types, and externally for Enterprising and Social types. Spontaneous types, seemingly contradictory to the common meaning of the word, take about 2 weeks of reflecting until a decision on an occupation emerges. Thus, Miller and Miller concluded that determining personality type is important before proceeding to making decisions.

In a meta-analysis of studies of the relationship between congruence and satisfaction, Tsabari, Tziner, and Meir found results that differed from earlier studies on two of Holland's basic assumptions: persons tend to choose occupational environments consistent with their personality types and a person will be more satisfied, have a more stable career pathway, and achieve more in the job if the person is employed in a work environment that is congruent with his or her personality type. This study was a replication of an earlier study based on 26 studies reported between 1988 and 2003 and represented 53 samples with 6,557 respondents. The current replication found no support for the moderating effect of others in the environment, satisfaction source, and code type, as reported by the previous meta-analysis.

Although Holland codes are a major part of many counseling practices, the convergent validity of O*NET Holland Code Classifications had not been previously reported. Eggerth, Bowles, Tunick, and Andrew investigated the rates of agreement between Holland code classifications from three major sources. Using six different methods, the authors compared the Holland code classifications from the O*NET with those from the Strong Interest Inventory [SII] and the Dictionary of Holland Occupational Codes. The mean pairwise rate of agreement for the first Holland code letter (R) was 70.6%, with a three-way rate of agreement of 60.2%. The mean pairwise rate of agreement for the first and second Holland code letters (RI) was 32.33%, with a three-way rate of agreement of 15.71%. The mean pairwise rate of agreement for the first, second, and third Holland code letters (RIA) was 12.56%, with a three-way rate of agreement of 2.62%.

Oliver and Waehler published the first reported empirical study pertaining to the vocational interests of Native Hawaiians (N = 156). The study supported the construct validity for this population of Holland's typology--the six vocational interest types and their arrangement in a circular RIASEC order.

SCCT

Lent, Singley, et al. presented two studies using different versions of the social cognitive model to predict domain-specific and overall life satisfaction. In Lent, Singley, et al.'s study, there was good support for the expectation that life satisfaction would be predicted by social cognitive variables, even when controlling for the effects of positive affectivity or extroversion. Domain satisfaction was found to be the single most consistent predictor of overall life satisfaction.

Maples and Luzzo found that "only a few studies have evaluated the effectiveness of career counseling interventions for helping clients become more self-efficacious regarding their career decision making or more optimistic in their attributional explanations for career-related events" (p. 274). Only one previous study evaluated computer-based career planning systems, and no study evaluated career decision-making attributional style for enhancing clients' career decision-making self-efficacy (CDMSE). The computer system was DISCOVER, used with college students (N = 34). The results indicated a significant effect of the use of DISCOVER on clients' CDMSE and their sense of control over the career decision-making process.

Schaub and Tokar tested two hypotheses related to SCCT: (a) the posited indirect effect of personality on interests through learning experiences and social cognitive mechanisms and (b) self-efficacy percepts and outcome expectations derived from corresponding career-relevant learning experiences. The results of both of these studies with 327 college students and using the Big Five personality factors supported and additionally clarified Lent et al.'s theorizing regarding the role of personality in the formation of interests. Regarding Lent, Singley, et al.'s theorizing, Schaub and Tokar's suggestion may be appropriate that

  SCCT perhaps should acknowledge more explicitly the possibility of
  personality's direct effect on interests, whereas Holland's (1997)
  theory should acknowledge more explicitly the intervening role of
  learning experiences and the sociocognitive mechanisms that derive
  from those learning experiences in the formation of interests. (p.
  321)

These findings lend strong support to SCCT's proposition that occupationally relevant learning experiences contribute positively to corresponding self-efficacy percepts and outcome expectations, and, conversely, that much of the effect of learning experiences on outcome expectations occur through self-efficacy.

Predicting a student's success in the course of studies for an engineering major has always been difficult, even with well-prepared students. Introducing gender, race, and the type of institution into the expected outcomes is challenging when the small number of historically Black colleges and universities produce a disproportionate share of bachelor's degrees earned by Black students. Lent, Sheu, et al. found that the SCCT-based model of interest and choice goals produced a good fit with the data across gender and university type.

Cunningham, Bruening, Sartore, Sagas, and Fink's SCCT study went beyond previous research in that it showed the value of a multifaceted measure of outcome expectations (i.e., satisfaction and power) and multidimensional contextual factors of supports and barriers. The participants in this sample (N = 197) came from four universities and consisted of those intending to enter the sport and leisure industry. Fifty-five percent of these juniors and seniors were men, and 83% were Caucasian. As predicted, Cunningham et al. found that (a) self-efficacy was related to outcome expectations, vocational interests, and choice goals; (b) outcome expectations and satisfaction were related to vocational interests; (c) vocational interests had a positive association with career goals; and (d) vocational interests and choice goals were distinct concepts.

Self-efficacy theory. Researchers used self-efficacy theory for its application to career choice, job seeking skills, decision making, and to assess interventions. Self-efficacy is a core element of SCCT and has been used to study various components of career development among various populations. Albaugh and Nauta studied the career decision self-efficacy and perceptions of career barriers of victims of intimate partner violence, more often among women. A rising concern of college campuses is the physical abuse occurring in intimate partner relationships. Because self-efficacy expectations reflect the confidence levels for the career decision-making process, Albaugh and Nauta posited that domestic violence victims among college women would have diminished confidence and poor self-concept. They expected that the greater the extent of intimate partner violence experienced by a woman, the lower her career decision self-efficacy and the higher her perceptions of career barriers.

A sample of 129 female college students who self-identified current or recent involvement in romantic relationships received measurements of career decision self-efficacy, perceptions of career barriers, frequency of violence perpetrated by a romantic partner, and depressive symptoms and anxiety. Albaugh and Nauta found that at least once in the past year, 52% of their sample had experienced psychological aggression, 16% had experienced physical assault, 20% were victims of sexual coercion, and 4% had incurred injury from partners. They also found that 86% of the women had resolved conflicts with their partners through positive negotiation. Frequency of the different forms of violence was analyzed regarding the extent that each form related to career decision self-efficacy. The only significant finding was among those who had been sexually coerced. Frequency of that experience conversely lowered confidence in career decision abilities for self-appraisal, goal selection, and problem solving. Little significance was found regarding abuse and perceived career barriers. Barriers concerning health and disability were negatively related for individuals who had experienced psychological aggression and sexual coercion. This perception was low among participants who had engaged in negotiation tactics with partners. Albaugh and Nauta recommended that career counselors consider self-efficacy issues and provide positive, enhancing learning experiences when a client discloses intimate partner violence.

Turner and Lapan used an intervention designed to raise career self-efficacy and awareness of nontraditional careers with students from two ethnically diverse public middle schools. The Mapping Vocational Challengers (MVC) was designed to increase awareness and efficacy concerning exploration, educational planning, and career planning activities. The MVC is a computer-assisted intervention consisting of three modules: career exploration, career mapping, and interpretation. When compared with a delayed-treatment group, a significant increase was observed in career exploration efficacy and educational and vocational development efficacy for the adolescents in a treatment group. Preintervention interest results indicated that boys had greater interest in Realistic careers and girls had greater interest in Social and Conventional careers. After the intervention, boys' interest scores in Artistic, Social, and Conventional areas increased, and girls reported higher scores in Realistic, Enterprising, and Conventional interests.

The role of career decision self-efficacy in career specialty choice was examined by Shivy and Sullivan, who assessed students' familiarity with and perceptions of engineering specialties. They also considered gender differences, ethnicity, career commitment, and career decision self-efficacy regarding students' perceptions. Findings regarding familiarity indicated that the electrical and mechanical engineering specialties were familiar to most students, whereas other types of engineering specialties (e.g., petroleum engineering) were unfamiliar to 50% of the students. Students who had higher confidence that their interests were similar to those of engineers and that this specialty was a good fit tended to be familiar with a greater number of specialties. Those who conveyed a higher degree of vocational exploration and commitment showed higher levels of career decision-making self-efficacy. Shivy and Sullivan noted that higher occupational knowledge resulted in greater confidence in career choice and tentatively concluded that gender, ethnicity, and vocational exploration/commitment may influence students' perceptions of engineering specialties.

The function of job search efficacy and job search intensity as mediators of the relationship between state and trait forms of negative affect (NA) and successful job search was examined by Crossley and Stanton. Kanfer, Wanberg, and Kantrowitz's (2001) self-regulatory model of the job search process served as the theoretical framework. The trait NA is described as "marked by pervasive feelings of discomfort, a tendency to dwell on negative aspects of self and world, and a general disposition to experience aversive emotional states" (Crossley & Stanton, p. 550). State forms of NA are negative affects such as depression, anxiety, and stress that were termed distress. Job search efficacy refers to self-beliefs regarding required behaviors for a successful job search, and job search intensity is the frequency of job search behaviors.

Crossley and Stanton found that NA and job-search success were significantly and negatively related, but distress and job-search success were significantly and positively related. They found the relationship between NA and interview success to be significantly negative and the relationship between distress and interview success to be significantly positive. Testing the roles of job-search self-efficacy and intensity revealed that the relationship between NA and interview success was mediated by both factors. Job-search self-efficacy and intensity partially supported the relationship between NA and job-search success. Two interactions involving distress were not mediated by either job-search self-efficacy or job-search intensity. Partial support was found for the use of the self-regulatory model of the job search process (Kanfer et al., 2001).

Family Influence

Parental influence has been mentioned as a significant variable by many career theorists. We describe three studies on this topic independently of other career theories. We note that efforts to determine the exact nature of the role that family influence plays in career development have been inconsistent and that establishing empirical support has proven elusive, therefore making the reality of specific influence more an assumption than a fact.

Hargrove, Inman, and Crane conducted an exploratory study that examined the extent to which family-of-origin interactions would predict vocational identity scores and career planning attitudes of high school students living at home (N = 123). The results showed that perceptions of family environment (quality of family relationships, family goal orientations, degree of organization and control within the family system) were not related to vocational identity for adolescents. This is inconsistent with research on college students. Also, none of the family systems maintenance dimension factors was a significant predictor for career development outcomes.

Ratelle, Larose, Guay, and Senecal studied 356 male and 373 female high school seniors to see whether parental involvement and support predicted persistence in science over time, because parents promote students' feelings of autonomy, competence, and relatedness at school. The results revealed that perceived autonomy supported predicted students' persistence in a science program; but perceived parental involvement, although predicting self-processes such as relatedness and autonomy feelings, did not directly relate to persistence in science.

Although there are differences in the types of jobs men and women hold in Europe, Ek, Sovio, Remes, and Jarvelin conducted a longitudinal study of 11,637 individuals to predict unsuccessful entry into the job market by 31 years of age. Very complete data of all kinds were available, including data from prebirth. Among the men with a history of unemployment, this pattern was predicted by the mother's attitude about accepting social aid, plus mother's contentment with the existing circumstances during early childhood, the family's low social status during respondents' adolescence, and a weak development of vocational skills during respondents' early adulthood. Among the women, unsuccessful entry into the job market was predicted by low school attainment level in adolescence, low job skill development in early adulthood, and by having more than two children. Low wages, respondent's perceived poor health, as well as low satisfaction with life and little social support were also associated with long-term unemployment. Ek et al. emphasized the role that early childhood social factors play in being successfully employed.

Rayle, Arredondo, and Robinson Kurpius reported that personal and family valuing of education and self-esteem were related to educational self-efficacy. In a study of the academic persistence of 876 1st-year college undergraduates, they found that academic stress was related to self-esteem and self-efficacy. They noted that no differences existed between Euro-American women and women of color. Also in a study of 114 ninth graders, Ali, McWhirter, and Chronister found that sibling and peer support accounted for a significant amount of the variance in vocational and educational self-efficacy beliefs.

Postmodernism

According to Thrift and Amundson, "as counselors come to grips with social justice and the growing inequities with society" (p. 18), career counseling inevitably will move toward a hermeneutic-narrative perspective. Hermeneutics was defined as the theory or philosophy of the interpretation of meaning. The authors summarized assumptions that underlie this approach--access to learning about lived experience is through narrative.

Constructivism and social constructionism. This theoretical perspective conceives individuals as active learners who construct their own learning. Patton wrote:

  Constructive approaches emphasize the forging of connections between
  individuals' experiences and various elements from their system of
  influences. Contrary to the trait and factor approach, it is not so
  much the individual ability, value, or belief that is targeted, but
  rather the meaning that clients ascribe to these constructs as a
  result of connection with other elements in their system of
  influences. Meaning or learning is generated from within the
  individual in relation to his or her experience of the world, (pp.
  23-24)

Patton addressed the needed language changes for providers and the processes that could be used to accommodate the movement away from the information-loaded instructional and assessment approaches. The reliance on the individual's career story becomes the collection of images depicting the way the person perceives himself or herself in the world.

Using the constructivist approach, Brott described the process of counselors coconstructing (uncovering and exploring) clients' current life stories. The themes that can be derived from the life story reflect the client's personal meanings. The next step explored is de-constructing (opening up) these themes, viewing different perspectives, discovery of exceptions, the possibility of imaging different experiences, and revealing a client's preferred way of living life roles. Clients then have the chance to construct (or author) their future story. The concept of life roles is relevant to dual-career partners, men, women, multicultural individuals, gays, lesbians, and persons with disabilities. Mkhize provided an illustrative example of a career narrative involving the social constructionism paradigm shift.

Kuit and Watson wrote, "Critical revisions of the career counselor's position have become unavoidable" (p. 30). The authors stated that those trained in traditionally modernist-empiricist and positivist scientific institutions must examine the inadequacies of their theoretical learning, inadequacies that Kuit and Watson consider to be an ethical dilemma. They point to the postmodern thrust in career counseling and career psychology toward constructivism and social constructionism.

Chaos theory of careers. As theories emerge from constructivist notions, will the field experience many "new" theories, albeit with common, interconnected constructs? In these next two sections of the annual review, for example, we have differentiated chaos theory from systems theory framework.

Pryor and Bright, the authors of Chaos Theory of Careers, confronted belief systems about the realities of existence. They have called on counselors to challenge and join their clients to balance limitations and potentials, unpredictability and expectation, ignorance and insight, impotence and control, and chaos and order. They believe that it is healthy to address limitations rather than avoid them.

McKay, Bright, and Pryor identified four crucial elements in career development and choice that are not accounted for in existing theories but central to the chaos theory of careers.

  1. Complexity -- of human experience and the range of potential
     influences on people's careers, in particular the influences of
     objective and subjective context.
  2. Change -- the dynamic, interactive, and adaptive nature of human
     functioning in the world and in making career decisions and taking
     career action.
  3. Constructiveness -- the tendency of humans to construe and
     construct experiences and perceptions into meaningful and other
     unique interpretive structures for understanding themselves, their
     experiences, and their world.
  4. Chance -- the unplanned and unpredictable events and experiences
     that are often crucial and sometimes determinative in the narrative
     of people's careers, (p. 100)

In the theory's application, decidedness is not always the best outcome, and undecidedness can be the most appropriate conclusion of career counseling.

Bloch presented a theory that grew from chaos, complexity, and nonlinear dynamics theories, the latter being the more general term.

  Career is presented as a complex adaptive entity, a fractal of the
  human entity. Characteristics of complex adaptive entities, including
  (a) autopiesis, or self-regeneration; (b) open exchange; (c)
  participation in networks; (d) fractals; (e) phase transitions between
  order and chaos; (f) search for fitness peaks; (g) nonlinear dynamics;
  (h) sensitive dependence; (i) attractors that limit growth; (j) the
  role of strange attractors in emergence; and (k) spirituality, are
  described and then applied to careers, (p. 194)

Systems Theory Framework of Career Development

McMahon described the systems theory framework (STF) as a metatheoretical account of career development. N. Arthur and McMahon set forth STF as a theoretical foundation for multicultural counseling because it can accommodate both group-specific and universalistic views of cultural diversity. According to STF theory, career counselors can play different roles, such as coach or advocate, within the system of influences, and they can interact with various influences within the system. "STF is a theoretical foundation that accounts for systems of influence on people's career development, including individual, social, and environmental/societal contexts" (N. Arthur & McMahon, p. 208). Clients examine the cultural influences by locating themselves within the content and process influences that are represented in the STF as a circular depiction of the many complex and interconnected systems within and between which career development occurs. Individuals see themselves not living in isolation but as part of a larger contextual system.

Career Choice and Development

Theories of career choice and development provide some guidance to practitioners with elementary-aged children. However, different theories provide conflicting perspectives of exactly how children's career thoughts and plans develop, Auger, Blackhurst, and Wahl interviewed 123 first, third, and fifth graders to investigate the types of careers they wished and expected to have. The fifth graders desired careers that were more socially prestigious and less sex-typed compared with those chosen by the younger children. The career thinking of older elementary-aged children was no more specific or realistic than that of younger children, with fifth graders being more likely to aspire to fantasy occupations.

There are, as well, hierarchical and time-related career development models. Van Esbroeck, Tibos, and Zaman noted that key to these models is the need to follow a career choice process in a specific order and according to a preset timetable to achieve a good career decision. Recently, some individuals have doubted whether such models can be realistically implemented. Esbroeck et al. cited the need for a dynamic model of decision making that would follow a flexible and nonhierarchical development process.

Because of the length of this article, we cannot do justice to the theory set forth in Vocational Choice: A Decision Making Perspective by Henry Sauermann. In contrast to Holland's approach to vocational choice, Sauermann presents a process-focused perspective based on behavioral decision making. Sauermann developed a model of the motivational and cognitive processes that are involved in a vocational choice. The model involves two major processes: (a) the selection of a decision strategy from four choice goals and (b) "the construction of situation-specific preferences, which can reflect irrelevant task and context factors such as the evaluative mode" (Sauermann, p. 273). The four choice goals are maximizing decision accuracy, minimizing cognitive effort, minimizing negative emotion, and maximizing justifiability of the decision. The model accounts for social influences and the long decision time it typically takes individuals to make most career and job decisions.

Chen presented a rationale for integrating chance conflict into career development theory. The notion of chance as conceptualized by Chen is based on the sociological work perspective. The argument is that exercising human control over one's work life takes into consideration the chance factor that often emerges in life experiences. For example, Bright, Pryor, and Harpham conducted an extensive survey of high school and university students (N = 772) in which participants reported that chance events influenced 69% of their career decisions. In making career decisions, the role of locus of control was also reported to be moderately associated with reporting chance events. The more external control individuals had, the more likely they were to report chance events as influencing their career decisions when compared with individuals having internal locus of control.

Bright, Pryor, Wilkenfeld, and Earl added to the evidence that unplanned and serendipitous events were perceived to influence career decisions. Their results indicated that university students (N = 651) perceived family, teachers, the media, and Web-based information as significant influences on career decisions. The authors interpreted their findings as supporting the need for a more open system theory of career decision making.

Focusing on career counseling, Fouad and Byars-Winston found that race and ethnicity do not appear to curtail the career dreams that people have. In a meta-analysis of research that investigated the relationship between culture and vocational choice variables, Fouad and Byars-Winston concluded that differences in race and ethnicity do not greatly affect career aspirations. They noted that race or ethnicity seemed to be unrelated to making decisions. However, the authors found that racial and ethnic minorities perceived fewer career opportunities and greater career barriers than did White individuals. Among others regarding career choice, these findings led the authors to believe that "Career counseling must incorporate different variables and different processes to be effective for clients from different cultural contexts" (Fouad & Byars-Winston, p. 223).

Career indecision remains a focus of researchers. Lee studied Gianakos's typology of four career choice types. Support for the stable and unstable types was found, but the conventional and multiple-trial types were judged to be unreliable. The author advocated considering emotional as well as cognitive variables in an ideal typology of career choice. In a study of the certainty of career and major type, three samples were investigated: Asian international, non-Asian international, and domestic students. The results showed no difference in the level of career certainty between the three groups. However, only the Asian international students exhibited a positive correlation between level of career certainty and intent to persist in a major (Singaravelu, White, & Bringaze).

Career decidedness is also an issue for medical students as they choose their career specialty area. This research-intervention project covered three consecutive classes of 2nd-year medical students (N = 161) who participated in a two-session specialty choice workshop. Leong, Hardin, and Gaylor examined choice certainty and satisfaction using measures of medical specialty preference, work values, and personality type. Decided students evidenced more stability and certainty of specialty choice as well as more satisfaction with their choices than did undecided students. Significant gender differences emerged in the relationships between scores on the measure of medical specialty preference and scores on measures of work values and personality. Hartung, Borges, and Jones examined the efficacy of the procedure for career specialty choice of medical students using the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF). They advocated for a process of person matching to promote career exploration and choice. This process links persons interested in an occupation with persons already in that same occupation on the basis of 16PF profile score similarity.

Theoretical Outcomes

Goal attainment, career satisfaction, career happiness, or career success are behavioral theoretical outcomes. But, Henderson and Chan reminded those in vocational psychology that Western theories of career happiness need to be examined from a cross-cultural perspective. The authors challenged the assumption that individualism and individual happiness are universal values. They noted that many psychological models are based on research framed by individualist nations even though individualist nations do not represent a majority in the world.

Heslin wrote that despite "vast" literature, empirical studies, and evidence from career theories about career success, "the success criterion has generally been operationalized in a rather deficient manner" (p. 113). He continued, "Curiously little scholarly attention has been devoted to analyzing the nature of career success" (Heslin, p. 114). Objective career success is "defined by verifiable attainments, such as pay, promotions, and occupational status which have long been considered the hallmarks of career success across a wide range of societies" (p. 114). In comparison, he states, "Subjective career success is defined by an individual's reactions to his or her unfolding career experiences" (Heslin, p. 114).

P-E, defined as the compatibility between individuals and organizations and described as the "fit" between the two, is a familiar concept to career counselors. But do counselors realize that "fit" has been positively related to individuals' job satisfaction? Ostroff, Shin, and Kinicki studied 951 employees from 113 bank branches and stated that

  Both P-E fit (between an individual's personal values and the cultural
  values of the organization) and perceptual fit (between an
  individual's perception of the organizational values and the
  organization's values as perceived by others) were found to be related
  to satisfaction, commitment, and turnover intentions, while P-P fit
  (between an individual's personal values and the personal values of
  others) was not. (p. 591)

In an intriguing article about "happy losers" and "unhappy winners," Nicholson and De Waal-Andrews questioned why the relationship between subjective and objective success was not higher: "The relationship between subjective and objective success goes to the heart of the most important problems and challenges in the career field" (p. 137). The top three objective success outcomes--status and rank (hierarchical position), material success (wealth, property, earning capacity), social reputation and regard, prestige, influence--were identified and compared with subjective success outcomes: pride in achievement, intrinsic job satisfaction, and self-worth. These authors took a popular concept and tried to deal with achieving success as a process whereby one can apply specific techniques.

Career success research makes inconsistent use of career theory, neglecting the interdependence of objective and subjective careers and boundary career issues of interorganizational mobility and extraorganizational support. M. B. Arthur, Khapova, and Wilderom presented new guidelines offering connections between boundaryless career theory and career success research that covered research design, elaborated definitions of career success, presented peer group comparisons, and conducted deeper investigation of the subjectively driven person.

The concept of positive psychology is receiving attention from many audiences. Martin applied it to the workplace for enhancing satisfaction, motivation, and productivity. The intent was to enhance individuals' success orientation using actively caring and occupational motivation models. The authors focused on the notions of workplace resilience, motivating workplace climates, personal bests, staff morale, the value individuals attach to tasks and outcomes, and the centrality of relationships in the performance context.

Career Theory and Concepts: Summary and Conclusion

The social justice perspective was positioned as a looking glass for what happened in 2005 with its career theories. Most of the standard career theories were written about. Super's dimensional model found support as a way of understanding childhood career development. Distinctive decision-making styles were associated with individual RIASEC dimensions of Holland. Three-letter Holland codes from different instruments were found to be incompatible with the codes in the Dictionary of Holland Occupational Titles (Gottfredson & Holland, 1996). Continued research support appeared for SCCT as well as self-efficacy as an independent concept. More evidence appeared for family influence as a determinant in career choice. Differences in race and ethnicity were found not to greatly affect career aspirations. The prediction was made that as counselors come to grips with social justice issues, they will inevitably move toward a hermeneutic-narrative perspective. Constructivism continues to spin off new theories, frameworks, and approaches. It was only in 1994 that Savickas and Lent's Convergence in Career Development Theories: Implications for Science and Practice appeared as a result of a historic conference that brought together the leading figures in the field of vocational psychology. What concepts will newcomers use to direct their practices? And last, using a metaphor of winning from the sports world, it appears that career counseling practitioners are uncertain about what success is when applied to the notion of careers.

Career Interventions and Practice

In identifying the diverse populations with whom career counselors practice, readers encounter multicultural/diversity research. Because of the comprehensiveness of the study by Buboltz et al., its commentary on multicultural/diversity research seemed to be very appropriate. They examined the top 40 U.S. institutions in overall research productivity for 1993-2002. Only 18 of these institutions have counseling psychology programs. In discussing the results, these authors wrote that the trends in research activity

  may indicate that multicultural/diversity is beginning to be
  recognized as an important research and training area. However,
  multicultural/diversity research is not supplanting traditional
  research at these leading institutions. Given that multicultural/
  diversity issues are only one component of doctoral training in
  counseling psychology, it makes sense that multicultural/diversity
  research should comprise a smaller portion of the research at leading
  counseling psychology research institutions. The results also may
  indicate that some doctoral programs in counseling psychology may be
  developing the area of multicultural/diversity issues as a specialty.
  In terms of actual training in multicultural/diversity issues, the
  data suggest that some students in counseling psychology programs may
  be getting more exposure to multicultural/diversity issues through
  research but do not lend any insight to formalized training in
  multicultural/diversity issues, (p. 725)

Client Populations

This section identifies the diversified client populations with whom practitioners work. The organizational intent is to share with readers the issues addressed for the different populations.

African Americans. McJunkin exposed practitioners to the information that will enable them to address the educational needs of African American students. Admitting that the topics covered are disparate, he addressed the central role that community colleges play in providing access to higher education and increasing the vocational opportunities for African Americans. The literature reviewed by McJunkin included topics such as learning style differences, cultural determinants of success, retention issues, and comparative achievement with other minority groups.

Constantine, Wallace, and Kindaichi examined the extent to which perceived occupational barriers and perceived parental support predicted career certainty and career indecision with African American high school students. Perceived parental support was positively associated with career certainty. Perceived occupational barriers were positively predictive of career indecision. Consideration of these contextual variables needs to be integrated into career decision-making processes. The authors highlighted the salience of social cognitive career theory in conceptualizing career-related issues of African American adolescents.

L. R. Thompson and Lewis presented a case study to highlight a story of success for African American young men. Failure was the perspective of these young men that was commonly featured. In presenting the case study, the authors focued on successes in mathematics achievement, rather than on failure and its debilitating features.

Asians and Asian Americans. Of the next four articles, two are about Asian/Chinese Americans and have similar themes--an awareness of Chinese culture is critical in relating to and facilitating the client's original purpose in seeing a career counselor. The other two articles were from populations in Taiwan.

Ma and Yeh began their article by saying that many Chinese Americans come to career counselors with career concerns rather than personal problems. These youth are attempting to balance their own interests with what is acceptable to their parents. Asian immigrant parents often have definite opinions about which careers will lead to success. Ma and Yeh studied "how intergenerational family conflict and relational-interdependent self-construal (defined as the tendency to think of oneself in terms of close others) influence the career decision status of Chinese American Youth" (p. 337). The results were as the authors expected--indecision about career choice increased as the intergenerational family conflict increased. The more Chinese youth define themselves in terms of close others, the more likely they are to feel certain about their career choices.

Lowe examined the theory and the tools that career counselors use, which are described as having an individualistic focus. The theory of Parsons and trait and factor theory are viewed as endorsing individualist value orientation. Career assessments such as the SII, the Self-Directed Search (SDS), and the Myers-Briggs Type Inventory also focus on how individual personality style functions as people integrate within the labor force. Lowe noted that these instruments "are devoid of attention to cultural, familial, and social-contextual factors in the career decision-making process" (p. 135). Collectivism places greater emphasis on interdependence, obligation to the in-group, and consideration of significant others in decision making. The results of a hierarchical multiple linear regression analysis indicated that "Asian American participants rated counselors who expressed a collectivist value orientation higher on cross-cultural competence than they rated counselors who expressed an individualist value orientation" (p. 141).

Specifically in Taiwan, a host of political, economic, and educational issues have created uncertainties in people's lives. People are experiencing a different political party with uncertainties about the relationship with mainland China. There is unstable economic development. Schools overemphasize intellectual learning, with little or no attention being given to self-exploration and career exploration. Taking this into account, Lien reported on young college-educated women who subsequently were employed as clerical workers. They experienced being bored but busy and also a lack of respect and trust. Their expectation of career dreams and aspirations and desire for meaningful work were frustrated. Tien, Lin, and Chen developed a hypothetical model of career uncertainty to deal with the previously described situation of the college-educated women experiencing frustration. Tien et al. used data from the Career Uncertainty Questionnaire that was completed by 532 college students to develop their model. Three dimensions resulted from a grounded analysis:

* Sources of Career Uncertainty

a. personal/internal: test performance, health issues, competitiveness, ambiguous goal setting

b. environmental/external: unexpected events, rapid changes in labor market, high unemployment, family expectations/pressure

* Experiences at the Moment of Feeling Uncertainty

a. physical: tired, unable to think

b. behavioral: not knowing what to do, feeling inadequate

c. emotional: helplessness, fearfulness, anxious

d. cognitive: lack of confidence, powerlessness

e. existential ultimate concerns: meaningless of life, isolation, death

* Coping Efficacy Related to Uncertainty--personal/psychological adjustments; physical adjustments; social support networks; searching for information and religious beliefs.

Bullying. Bullying is not limited to children or to occurrences at school. Fox and Stallworth investigated relations between the incidence of work-place bullying and the everyday experiences of members of ethnic and racial minorities in the U.S. workplace. Participants belonged to four racial/ethnic groups: Asians, African Americans, Hispanics/Latinos, and Whites. The methodology used was a survey of general and racial/ethnic bullying experiences, responses to these experiences, preferred modes and methods of internal organizational redress, and dispute resolution. Very different profiles emerged between bullying perpetrated by supervisors and superiors versus that from coworkers and peers in the organization. The authors paid particular attention to expressions of bullying that overtly or specifically referred to race or ethnicity in the form of more or less subtle acts of discrimination and hostile treatment, introducing the term racial/ethnic bullying.

Gay men and lesbians. Adams, Cahill, and Ackerlind interviewed 8 Latino lesbian and gay (LG) youth,

  to examine their career development process and to increase an
  understanding of how multiple identities intersect with each other and
  the career development process. Six themes emerged: knowing they were
  different, within-group prejudice, no restrictions to career choice,
  intersecting developmental tasks, resilience in the face of
  heterosexism, and contradictory identity management in the workplace,
  (p. 199)

The authors discussed these themes in relation to current career theory and research, and in particular to SCCT.

In the study of Lyons, Brenner, and Fassinger,

  Two expanded models (mediated and moderated) of the theory of work
  adjustment (TWA) were tested for their capacity to explain the job
  satisfaction of a sample of lesbian, gay, and bisexual employees (N =
  397). Consistent with cultural critiques of the TWA,
  person-organization fit perceptions were tested as the mediator of the
  relationship between heterosexism and job satisfaction in one set of
  hypotheses, and experiences with informal heterosexism were tested as
  a moderator in the relationship between person-organization fit
  perception and job satisfaction in a separate set of hypotheses, (p.
  537)

Lyons et al. found that the mediated model but not the moderated model was supported and was confirmed by a cross-validation sample.

Hispanics, Latinos, and Mexican Americans. Faculty development programs are interventions shown to successfully address the needs of individual faculty members in terms of their teaching, fostering scholarship, and research capabilities. Few programs have been specifically targeted to the career development of Hispanics and Latinos and other minorities. Soto-Greene, Sanchez, Churrango, and Salas-Lopez described the development of the Hispanic Center of Excellence at the New Jersey Medical School and its nationwide implementation.

K. B. Wilson and Senices reported that Hispanics are more likely to be accepted for vocational rehabilitation services than are non-Hispanics in the United States. A test of proportions revealed a significant difference between race/ethnicity and vocational rehabilitation acceptance rates.

Leal-Muniz and Constantine explored the predictors of the career commitment process with Mexican American college students. They found that perceived parental support was significantly positively predictive of vocational exploration and commitment and was significantly negatively predictive of a tendency to foreclose prematurely on career options. Both perceived career barriers and adherence to career myths were significantly positively predictive of the tendency to foreclose on career choices.

The study by Flores and Obasi empirically examined the influence of mentors with Mexican American high school students. The students reported that mentors who assisted them most modeled behaviors, overcame personal struggles, or exhibited qualities that students wanted to emulate. The type of assistance from mentors that students cited next as being helpful was their provision of verbal encouragement. The third way of assisting that students cited was their mentors' availability and supportiveness. As was found in previous studies, mothers were highly influential in Mexican American students' lives, and many in this study cited their mother as their mentor. Flores and Obasi made an interesting observation that students attended schools and lived in communities with people of the same ethnic background (88% were Hispanic or Latino) and commented,

  The presence of a mentoring relationship at a time in their lives when
  they are part of the majority cultural group in the community may not
  have as much of an influence on their career and educational plans as
  it might when they are in colleges or work environments in which they
  are part of an underrepresented group and in which they may not be
  exposed to role models from their ethnic group. (p. 162)

Asian Indians. Gupta and Tracey examined personal interests--occupational choice congruence and career exploration behaviors for a sample of 107 White and 83 Asian Indian college students in the United States. Asian Indians were expected to evidence less congruence and career exploration than were Whites. The specific intragroup difference was the endorsement of Dharmic values--an Asian Indian valuing of tradition and duty that was hypothesized to be related to lower congruence and less career exploration. Results of hierarchical regression analyses supported the hypotheses regarding congruence but not career exploration.

Mani studied the career decision-making process of Sikh Indo-Canadian women in choosing to study the social sciences. Analyses of data from a qualitative descriptive case approach revealed that self-efficacy appraisals played an important role in moderating the participants' views of support and barriers during their career decision making.

Native Americans. In their article, Hoffman, Jackson, and Smith noted that educational achievement and employment patterns indicate that Native American students face considerable barriers to employment. This situation is even more extreme when students live on reservations.

Soldiers/military personnel. Adler, Hoffman, Bliese, and Castro examined the effects of stressor duration (deployment length) and stressor novelty (no prior deployment experience) on the psychological health of male and female military personnel returning from a peacekeeping deployment. The sample consisted of 2,114 men and 1,225 women with symptoms of depression and posttraumatic stress. Longer deployments and first-time deployments were associated with an increase in distress scores. However, the relationship between deployment length and increased distress was found only for male soldiers. The findings demonstrated different stress response patterns for men and women.

Tucker, Sinclair, and Thomas examined Army personnel and found that "Shared stressors (i.e., more work hours, increased quantitative workload, less predictability, increased work-family conflict, greater interpersonal conflict) are negatively related to well-being, attachment, and readiness" (p. 280).

Ippolito, Adler, Thomas, Litz, and Holzl may give the reader better insight into the effect of job demands on workers' level of strain and, eventually, psychological health. Their results partially confirmed with these soldiers that "even after controlling for general psychological health at predeployment, job control moderated the relationship between demands and psychological health during deployment when soldiers used active coping. No significant 3-way interactions were found for religious coping and passive coping" (Ippolito et al., p. 452).

In doing this annual review, we noted the surprising absence of articles whose titles called attention to work-family issues in the military. Although the issues were presented, they were not the focal point of articles.

Career Interventions

Career counselors often work with fringe clients. Fringe clients can be those who are mandated by the courts to engage in career counseling or those returning to work after dealing with mental health issues, addictions, or prison. They may be described as being discouraged or lacking in confidence or labeled as resistant or unmotivated clients. Muscat described a way to work with these clients. The readiness issue was noted to be particularly important for motivating these individuals as well as allowing them to believe in themselves and have confidence in their abilities. Muscat illustrated his Transtheoretical Model of Change with two cases.

Contemporary career counseling models call for counselors to be attuned to the clients' subjective world as they struggle and negotiate a path to fulfillment, meaning, and freedom. That is where the relevance of existentialism to career theory enters. Maglio, Butterfield, and Borgen noted that (a) a collapse of value systems external to an individual could force a person to find an internal locus of values, (b) disparity deals with aspirations and what the person is, (c) authenticity deals with the ideal state, and (d) existentialism focuses on a person's unique and defining characteristics. This is a good article for someone who wishes to fully explore various existential themes.

Van Hooft, Born, Taris, Van der Flier, and Blonk's study found a relationship between job search interventions and job search behaviors. The authors repeatedly mentioned that intentions are the sole determinants of human behavior. This study tried to improve the understanding of the transition from intention to behavior. Van Hooft et al. set forth a model "that people are more likely to search for jobs when they furnish their intentions with detailed plans about when, where, and how to start their job search activities" (p. 254).

Feldman and Lankau reported that executive coaching has experienced a dramatic increase in use and a "burgeoning practitioner literature" (p. 829). They noted, however, that empirical research on this topic has lagged far behind and that there has been limited theoretical work on the processes underlying effective coaching. This article investigated the construct of executive coaching and examined how coaches' professional training, client characteristics, and types of coaching influenced the effectiveness of intervention.

Occupational/Labor Market Information

This section addresses what occupational information children want and explores the issue of the erroneous occupational information that college students have, sometimes even in regard to their own major.

McMahon and Watson conducted a cross-national study (Australia and South Africa) to find out what children want to know about careers. Their study revealed that students do not need what the experts typically provide them. The authors' review of the sparse research found that the literature focused on sources of information--the school. Unclear is the parents' role in what their children are learning about careers and the process by which children learn occupational information. This study aimed to gather information on children's knowledge and their understanding about the world of work and to explore what they wanted to know. The authors examined the link between the developmental theories of Gottfredson and Super and career information. The results showed that at least 71% of 883 students needed to know about life/career implications and life/career management tasks and had less of a need to know about interests and personal characteristics and the nature of work. Life/career implications include job-related stress, earnings, lifestyle and conditions of employment; life/career management tasks include answers to the questions How long is an apprenticeship? How do you apply for an apprenticeship? and To whom should you speak for information?

After a review of the literature documenting a long-standing problem of college students' need for help in gaining career knowledge, Green, McCord, and Westbrooks conducted a study focusing on educational requirements for desired careers. The investigation was done in two studies (N = 189) and addressed three questions: Are college students, in general, aware of the educational requirements of their preferred careers? Are the perceptions of psychology majors concerning professional development more or less accurate than those of nonmajors? Are the perceptions of students who are taking a careers in psychology course more accurate than those who have not? Students' rating of the amount of education needed for their intended career was compared with the requirements given in the Occupational Outlook Handbook. Results revealed that, in general, students overestimated how much education they needed for their preferred career. Psychology majors were more inaccurate than were students in other majors, and the students from all majors became more accurate after completing a careers course.

Workplace Preparation and Entry

Studies of workers and work settings that have been conducted overseas tend to be very comprehensive in design, often reflect on government programs, cover a time span possibly longitudinal in nature, and involve large samples. These types of studies are not often conducted in the United States, so they can help U.S. practitioners of career counseling to better understand what they may be able to observe happening to only a few of their clients.

Collinson took a sociological approach in a qualitative study of art and design doctoral students. She observed the transformation of these students from creator to creator-researcher as they approached and completed their thesis projects. A particular challenge of art and design doctoral students is the compilation and completion of their creative work accompanied by their written analysis of this work, a form of communication that is less familiar to them. In-depth interviews addressed students' relations with their research supervisor. Other issues included the relationship of their practice with theory, the artist community, and writing. Students' conception of identity was also discussed. Through the narrative process, Collinson noted that this transformational journey from a creator to a creator-researcher involved validation of performance and communication from supervisors and other students and synthesis of technical expertise and tacit knowledge, all of which led to a new identity for the students. Students who initially perceived research as detrimental to creative practice came to recognize creative possibilities in their research and were able to assume research identities that were in concert with their roles as creators.

An Australian proposal for integrating work and school through co-opting was presented by Billett. Although Australian high school students normally engage in some form of work experience, co-opting is a formally structured program with the distinctive factor of being paid employment. Billet cited many educational, personal, and career benefits of co-opting. The author offered a research-based argument for the implementation of this program and addressed curriculum issues. Billett provided examples of a framework that included activities and reflective questions for a successful co-opting (cooperative education) program.

Researchers from Finland looked at group training techniques and their impact on reemployment, quality of reemployment, and the mental health of participants. Vuori, Price, Mutanen, and Malmberg-Heimonen found that group-level preparation against setbacks and trainer skills reduced psychological distress and depression. The intersubjective group techniques established a learning environment in small-group settings, fostering motivation and participation and a safe, nonthreatening environment. Preparation to deal with hindrances was seen as key in helping participants who were at risk for depression. High-risk participants benefited from sharing views and experiences with other group members. Shared perceptions of trainer skills were also helpful for the mental health of participants, stressing the importance of quality training for group leaders.

Wanberg, Glomb, Song, and Sorenson's research examined an overlooked aspect of job search behavior, job persistence. Wanberg et al. selected core self-evaluation and theory of planned behavior as variables for their study. Core self-evaluation is seen as positive self-concept involving self-esteem, self-efficacy, locus of control, and emotional stability (Judge, Erez, & Bono, 1998). The theory of planned behavior looks at the motivational factors that lead to the performance and intensity of behaviors and takes into account social norms and attitude toward the behavior.

Over an 18-week period, recipients of unemployment insurance engaged in nine short automated telephone surveys after receiving an initial orientation and a demographic survey. Wanberg et al. found that higher core evaluations did result in higher levels of job search intensity over time. Higher levels of subjective norms and self-efficacy could be connected to higher levels of intensity. No significance was found regarding attitudes. Subjective norms were found to be more strongly related to intentions than was self-efficacy. Job search intensity was seen as a predictor of reemployment. Looking at changes in job search behavior over time, Wanberg et al. found a convex trend, which suggested that individuals decreased slightly in their job search efforts toward the midpoint of the research period but returned to their previous job search levels by the end of the study. Findings regarding core self-evaluation suggested that a strong self-concept drives persistence in the job search.

The researchers in the fields of rehabilitation and higher education also addressed employment counseling practices. Through their study, Kluesner, Bordieri, and Taylor sought to establish a set of job tasks for employment counseling practitioners in three sectors of rehabilitation services. Respondents rated how essential certain tasks were to the performance of their jobs. The five highest ranked items were assisting consumers to select jobs consistent with their abilities, interests and goals; addressing unrealistic vocational plans; identifying transferable work skills through work history and functional skills, training, education and limitations; matching consumer's physical capability with requirements; and assessing consumer's readiness for employment. The least essential tasks were performing ergonomic evaluations, evaluating past work adjustments through employer performance appraisals, negotiating with labor unions to reinstate injured union member into different jobs, meeting with insurance representatives, and meeting with attorneys.

Results of a factor analysis of functions revealed that job tasks can be clustered under four functional areas: employer development, vocational exploration, basic placement activities, and multisystem facilitation. Further analysis indicated differences among state, private nonprofit, and private for-profit agencies. The counselors in the private nonprofit sector valued employer development and job placement activities more highly than did counselors in the other settings. Private for-profit counselors rated multisystem facilitation as most important. Vocational exploration was considered more important for state and private nonprofit settings.

The theory of planned behavior was used as a theoretical framework to look at the intentions of rehabilitation counselors providing vocational assistance to clients living with AIDS. Hergenrather, Rhodes, and McDaniel sought to determine whether attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control were predictors of intention to place consumers living with AIDS into jobs. They found that attitude and subjective norms were significant predictors of intention, with subjective norms having the higher magnitude. Perceived behavioral control, attitude, and subjective norm were significant, but subjective norms continued to have the strongest effect on intention. Attitude was ranked as the second strongest predictor. The supervisor who had the most influence on the job placement activities of staff can be effective in modifying beliefs through training interventions based on Bandura's (1986) four sources of social learning to enhance services for clients living with AIDS.

It is commonly known that communications skills are highly desired by employers. Stevens surveyed the satisfaction level of Silicone Valley recruiters with the communications skills of new hires. The author also identified the specific abilities desired within the communications discipline. Employers were only partially satisfied with communication skill, tending to rate the realm of skills of college students as neutral. Neutral ratings were also reported for writing skills. Employers' responses to an open-ended question revealed that students did not understand the format of an essay, often using bulleted lists rather than written text, nor did they understand the role of e-mail as a means of professional business communications. Other requests expressed by employers regarding skills of potential new employees were improved oral communication skills; improved spelling, grammar, and interviewing skills; and more appropriate dress and business etiquette. Improvement of these skills in college students is the combined responsibility of the career center professionals and faculty.

Employer feedback was solicited by Ross and Young for the field of recreation and leisure. Resume preferences were acquired through surveys of 523 recreation and leisure service professionals. Survey results indicated that resumes of sports and leisure students should highlight related work experience considered very important by the recruiter and be chronologically formatted with bulleted lists. Recreation and leisure service professionals reported that students' overall GPA and the GPA in their major were somewhat important to them, yet the choice of major and internships were perceived as more important. Objectives may be omitted, but a separate list of references should be submitted with the resume. Resume length was of no importance. Because some findings appear contrary to prevalent resume advice, the authors recommended that career advisers become knowledgeable about resume preferences for specific fields of study.

Chalk, Meara, Day, and Davis asked 98 undergraduate women to rate feminine, masculine, and neutral jobs regarding what they expected, feared, or hoped the job to be (ideal). The results showed that the women feared feminine jobs more than they had expected or that they idealized them. The women feared the masculine jobs more than they expected but did not fear them more than they idealized them. For neutral jobs, no differences were found. For women who selected a masculine occupation as their most feared job, the reasons given were job demands, competition, and doubts about success. Those who selected a feminine occupation feared the job's low status and disappointment from others.

Once students have secured employment, their success in the workplace may be dependent on strong emotional intelligence (EI). Liptak proposed that EI may be taught and could be incorporated into his Confluence Counseling Model, which he described. Career and life success is dependent on three sets of skills: career and job search, personal competence, and social competence skills. Liptak provided steps for career counselors to facilitate the development of the EI of their students.

Mentoring

Levesque, O'Neill, Nelson, and Dumas's study, the first of its kind, was conducted to consider the difference between 637 men's and women's perceptions of the most important mentoring functions. Respondents identified the three most important things that mentors can do for their proteges. Little difference was noted between men's and women's perceptions of the important mentoring functions. Women, more than men, reported championing and acceptance and confirmation behavior among their top three mentoring functions. This sample's listing, however, underrepresented the mentoring behaviors commonly cited in the literature. The behaviors identified by this study's participants as being important were not well represented in the literature. The design for program evaluations called for educating mentors about actual expectations versus the expectations they might associate with the other sex.

Pellegrini and Scandura investigated whether an evaluation of mentoring results depended on whether or not people were satisfied with their mentor. They identified a three-factor structure composed of the dimensions of vocational support, psychosocial support, and role modeling. The Mentoring Functions Questionnaire demonstrated excellent psychometric properties with unsatisfied proteges, but the instrument needs further development to be used with satisfied proteges.

Mentoring programs for specific populations. A series of articles described mentoring with various occupational groups or in specific settings, such as preservice teachers (Normore & Floyd), women in biotechnology--an industry in which women have penetrated the glass ceiling (Anderson), and midcareer college faculty (Nottis). Another series of articles described mentoring programs and their component features. VanDerLinden found that the majority of community college administrators indicated that they had a mentor in higher education. The study focused on the types of formal and informal activities that the senior administrators had participated in. Van Ast and Field described a 1-day structured mentor/mentee program for community college instructors. A unique component of this program was the assessment of and feedback on each teacher's effectiveness.

E-mentoring is relatively new and underresearched. Headlam-Wells, Gosland, and Craig reported on a program for women funded by the European Union that evaluated existing mentoring and e-mentoring models. A unique aspect of the study was the use of psychological profiling and analytical processing to produce optimal mentoring matches for the 122 participants. The benefits and challenges of e-mentoring were presented. The e-mentoring system used a comprehensive range of resources and communication media not often included in regular programs. E-mentoring was a valuable tool for both women returning to the labor market and those currently employed women wishing to break through the glass ceiling.

Linnehan, Weer, and Uhl examined the determinants of African American high school students' (N = 94) initial trust beliefs about adult mentors. Contrary to the authors' expectations, African American students with low ethnic identity believed a White adult mentor would be more competent and predictable than did students with a high ethnic identity. The results indicated that

  both structural assurance beliefs and youth dispositions toward trust
  were positive, significant predictors of the belief in an adult
  mentor's benevolence, honesty, competence, and predictability. Mentor
  selection procedures were not related to any of the trust beliefs.
  Ethnic identity of the student was found to moderate the relation
  between two of these beliefs (competence and predictability) with
  racial similarity of the mentor and student. (Linehan et al., p. 501)

Developments in mentoring. In a review of literature published over 20 years, Molloy highlighted how the concept of development networks evolved. The published works covering 1985-2005 examined definition, conceptualization, and tests of the theories regarding development networks. Highlighted was the transition in mentoring research from an exclusive focus on mentoring dyads to an integrative focus on mentoring development networks.

A longitudinal survey study by Dobrow and Higgins covering a 5-year span (1996-2001) involved 136 full-time students in master's in business administration programs in a top-20 business school. The authors examined the relationships between clarity of professional identity and three different measures of developmental network density. They explored how developmental network characteristics are related to professional identity over time. They found that developmental network density, which reflects the professional identity exploration process, was negatively related to clarity of professional identity. The findings suggest that people might be able to improve their career through changing their developmental networks, particularly in their early career years.

Who wants to be a mentor? Results of Van Emerik, Baugh, and Euwema's study of 262 managerial bank employees suggested that employees volunteering to be a mentor are clearly ambitious in terms of their own career but are not necessarily highly committed to their organization, nor do they perform exemplary behaviors in terms of extra role behavior or networking. Individuals are more likely to engage in mentoring activities and to desire to become a mentor if they have high career aspirations. This relationship may be the result of an instrumental perspective on the part of the mentor, who sees developing a cadre of loyal and supportive organizational members as having a positive effect on his or her own career advancement.

In their study, Allen, Day, and Lentz

  examined interpersonal comfort as a potential mediating mechanism in
  mentoring relationships. Results indicated that interpersonal comfort
  mediated the relationship between gender similarity and protege
  reports of career and psychosocial mentoring. Contrary to prediction,
  interpersonal comfort did not mediate relationships involving
  mentorship type (i.e., formal versus informal).... Very little
  mentoring research has focused on identifying the psychological
  processes that explain why variables such as a gender composition and
  mentorship type relate to mentoring effectiveness. (p. 155)

In the case of examining the effects of mentoring on academic careers over time, Kirchmeyer investigated two perspectives: performance and political. The author found that the political perspective showed direct effects.

Service Delivery Systems

This section addresses the infrastructure that supports the way that career services are delivered to clients. Richard pointed out that the best practices of career guidance services increasingly are being examined worldwide, albeit with a recognition of cultural, social, and economic differences. In an international review of the literature, there is general support for the tenets of career development--that self-knowledge and career exploration and an interactive and integrated method of delivery are key to sound career decision making. Gysbers provided a current status report of the career development movement in the United States.

Gysbers is a longtime champion of comprehensive school guidance programs for systemic service delivery. In a career profile, he highlights the important and central roles that career development concepts and practices have within elementary, middle, and high school programs.

The following programs demonstrate effective approaches to delivering counseling and career services. For example, Peng demonstrated through an experimental design that a career decision-making course can reduce the anxiety level of college freshmen. Results from a study in which participants completed the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory indicated that there was clear support for the benefits of a career decision-making course.

Brewer and Landers analyzed a study by the University of Tennessee in Knoxville that examined the effectiveness of a program that provided career exploration and counseling services to low-income students. The Talent Search Program reaches out to individuals with financial need who have the potential to become first-generation college graduates. Postsecondary education enrollment rates of 758 Talent Search participants were compared with enrollment rates of a control group of 450 individuals who were eligible for Talent Search services but did not participate. Brewer and Landers found that chi-square analysis revealed that Talent Search participants were significantly more likely at the .001 level to enroll in postsecondary education than were members of the control group.

Working With Rural Youth

In this annual review, we tried to illustrate how topics might fit into a program or a programmatic delivery of service perspective. We selected rural communities as the topic and focus because the needs of the populations in these settings receive little attention in the literature. Shepard reminded us of the economic, technological, and social transformations occurring in rural areas. Shepard specifically addressed the particular challenges young women face in making educational and career decisions. The article described a community-based workshop. Workshop activities were clustered within three topic areas: knowledge of me in my local world; knowledge of the world of work inside and outside my community; and strengthening my future. The importance of experience that is developmentally appropriate was noted.

Wettersten et al. investigated "the ability of assessed levels of social support, perceived parental involvement, academic self-efficacy, and perceived educational barriers to predict school engagement and work role attitudes among rural high school students" (p. 658). The results supported the importance of social support and parental involvement and self-efficacy in predicting work and school attitudes. What was noteworthy were the authors' suggested interventions that could easily fit into a programmatic delivery for many situations: (a) to provide parent education classes with pamphlets to teach social skills and parenting tips; (b) to link rural students with mentors both in their local community and, through the Internet, to a larger community outside of their rural home; (c) to provide experiential training in relationship building and self-esteem building; and (d) to consult with teachers and parents to build strong social skills and a supportive classroom environment as a means of increasing school engagement.

Cox and Espinoza proposed a framework for career counseling in rural communities that would address the psychosocial and economic changes of national disasters and other catastrophic transitions.

  Nowhere are these calls for such changes in career counseling and
  theory more salient than in rural communities. The traditional
  reliance of rural communities on primary (natural resource) industries
  and the attendant threat of economic disruption arising from global
  restructuring, disease, extreme weather events, and natural disasters
  mean that workers in rural environments face, perhaps, an even higher
  likelihood of having to navigate catastrophic transitions. (p. 147)

Their proposal is to expand the career-community development framework from a focus on the notion of "client" to a perspective that includes a community-as-client approach within a capacity-building orientation to supporting workers in the wake of large-scale disruptions. The authors pointed out that this framework requires counselors to shift to a counselor-as-collaborator from a counselor-as-expert role. The framework's emphasis on participation provides communities and career counselors with a means of drawing on the local community members' individual strengths and skills in a mutual empowering process. However, this requires addressing emotional, psychological, and financial concerns simultaneously. The authors used the case of a devastating forest fire to outline the intervention approach that integrates elements from psychological trauma theory, career-community capacity building models, and "libratory" (i.e., allowing creativity and freedom from traditional roles) educational practices.

Working With Those With Disabling Conditions

Many individuals intend to continue working despite the prognosis of a terminal illness. In a study using behavior intention theory, Westaby, Versenyi, and Hausmann hypothesized the predictors of intent to continue working: reasons for working (intrinsic and extrinsic), the will to live, disability severity, accessibility of travel, and age. The participants had Lou Gehrig's disease and had an average life expectancy of 3 years. The results of the study indicated that intrinsic reasons were especially strong predictors of intentions to continue working, with age, disability severity, and accessibility of travel following in that order.

A noteworthy study by Jorgensen et al. of college completion for those with disabilities is distinctive because of its size (N = 41,357) and because it covered a 12-year span. The results revealed that students with and without disabilities, including learning disabilities, had virtually identical grades and graduation outcomes. It is to be noted that students with disabilities carried lighter course loads and took approximately one semester longer to graduate. The institution was a large college in Quebec, Canada.

Goodwin and Kennedy identified 12 of Jahoda's psychosocial functions of work. Fifty sheltered workshop attendants with severe and enduring mental health problems were rated according to how important the psychosocial functions of work were perceived to be and the extent to which these functions were fulfilled through their attendance at the workshop. Satisfaction of the psychosocial functions fulfilled through work was compared with the satisfaction of these functions through other aspects of the participants' lives. Self-confidence/self-esteem was rated highly. Functions such as structure to the day, self-confidence, and social contact were better satisfied through work than were decision making, practicing old skills, and having goals.

After investigating a group of women with severe work disabilities, Moore identified a core story--women contributing of themselves in order to be part of something larger than themselves. The most important dimensions of the core story were developing and maintaining connections with others, doing paid and unpaid work, and engaging in religious or spiritual development. The women received self-respect by connecting with others.

In a review of empirical studies published since 1987, Crisp identified key variables related to employment for six disability groups. The groups were persons with spinal cord injuries, traumatic brain injuries, chronic pain, myocardial infarction/coronary artery bypass grafting, and severe mental illness. The key predictors of vocational outcomes were sociodemographic (i.e., age, education, race/ethnicity, litigation/financial compensation), psychosocial (e.g., coping strategies, social support), and psychological factors, especially depression symptoms.

Allaire, Niu, and LaValley found support for the job retention service intervention to reduce the high rates of job loss associated with having a chronic disease.

Yanchak, Lease, and Strauser studied the vocational identify of different disability types. Vocational identity is knowing one's goals, interests, personality, and talents that contribute to appropriate decision making and gaining confidence in so doing. Yanchak et al.'s results indicated that individuals with cognitive impairments had more decision-making confusion and external conflict than did those with physical disabilities.

People have limited expectations of vocational success for individuals with cystic fibrosis (CF), the most commonly inherited fatal disease found in industrialized nations. Burker, Sedway, Carone, Trombley, and Yeatts's study described the vocational status of 183 adults with CF and revealed unexpected findings. The majority were working or were in school; were employed in professional, managerial, technical, clerical, and sales occupations; and held jobs that varied in physical demands and strength ratings. Those in skilled jobs held their jobs more consistently than did those in unskilled jobs.

Capella-McDonnall found four variables associated with competitive employment of the blind and visually impaired: obtaining an educational certificate or degree, working since the onset of the disability, using rehabilitation services, and having a good relationship with the agency counselor. In their article, Hagen-Foley, Rosenthal, and Thomas noted that significant differences in informed choices and possible resulting client satisfaction were varied depending on the client's disability.

Working With Health-Related Issues

Creed and Klisch focused on unemployment, one of the most serious and troublesome problems facing society. Being unemployed is associated with lowered levels of psychological well-being, with two theoretical perspectives dominating the research--the latent deprivation and the agency restriction models. These authors found support for the agency restriction over the latent restriction model. They concluded that the examination of internal agency processes is required to understand the decline in well-being of individuals who are unemployed.

In comparing coping of employed and unemployed workers, Mantler, Matejicek, Matheson, and Anisman found that emotion-focused coping strategies were related to higher perceived stress. Regardless of employment status, both individuals who were employed and those who were unemployed benefited from engaging in proactive coping strategies, such as problem solving, rather than engaging in emotional expressions, such as blaming.

Research has found that unfavorable job characteristics can lead to negative feelings and callous attitudes toward work. The effects of a job demand-resources model were tested by Bakker, Demerouti, and Euwema:

  Four demanding aspects of the job (e.g., work overload, emotional
  demands) and 4 job resources (e.g., autonomy, performance feedback)
  were used to test the central hypothesis that the interaction between
  (high) demands and (low) resources produces the highest levels of
  burnout (exhaustion) cynicism, reduced professional efficacy. (p. 170)

The results showed that job demands were the most important predictors of exhaustion, and the lack of job resources was the most important predictor of cynicism and professional efficacy.

Best, Stapleton, and Downey shifted the traditional focus for understanding the burnout process from a primarily situational perspective to one that implicates personal and contextual factors, that is, the P-E fit model. "The bottom line is that individuals do not burn out or become dissatisfied with the job merely because of work conditions; rather, their core belief systems also play an important role in these responses" (p. 449).

In a cross-sectional study, Wiesner, Windle, and Freeman tested main and moderated relationships between job stress and alcohol and drug use and depression among young Caucasian middle-class adult workers (N = 583). There was little support for the main effects. Heavy alcohol use and low skill variety were found among men only. All other analyses found few gender differences. High workload did not leave much time or opportunity for drug use. High job boredom was linked to higher levels of depression. No direct relationships were found between job stress and binge drinking, alcohol consumption, or drug use.

On the basis of previous research, women are expected to exhibit more total coping with work stressors than are men. Krajewski and Goffin found that male and female participants (N = 113) evidenced similar coping strategies in the self-focused (i.e., solitary) work overload focus. Female participants showed significantly higher use of coping and especially greater emotional expressive coping in the interpersonal work overload context in comparison to male participants.

Another study by Daniels and Harris examined coping. The results indicated that the job redesign interventions to increase control and support, for example, through team work, might increase the chances of success if problem-solving skills training accompanied job redesign. Because problem-focused coping through control was related to goal attainment, well-being might be improved by incorporating into the appraisal system how organizations can provide support to align personal goals with organizational goals.

Career Interventions and Practice: Summary and Conclusion

The number of client populations about which literature exists continues to grow. The significance of this literature is that specific knowledge is needed to increase the chances of more effective practice with each of these populations. We have been long involved in experiential education and question where and how practitioners are going to receive this specific skill training. Additional specialized skills dealt with health issues, stress, coping strategies, and delivery of services to a rural community. The question remains: How do practitioners prepare themselves for these roles? Mentoring continues to be a major supportive role sought by and provided to a variety of workers. While reading all of the literature for this review, two observations were very clearly communicated--many old practices in the field of career counseling, although needed, are not valued and there are some people in the counseling field who do not value the work of career counseling practitioners. In this section, which covers employment, hiring decisions are increasingly influenced by behavioral interviewing, which is based on occupational or labor market information. Individuals who cannot communicate their skill sets for certain occupations are often not hired. Those who have not learned to self-analyze as they progress in their career will become increasingly deficient in the capacity to maneuver and control their lives. Career resource materials, whether in print or on the Internet, facilitate life's navigation.

Career Assessment and Technology

Adapting Career Assessments for Intercultural Use

The hurdles and pitfalls of adapting career assessments for use in other countries and cultures have long been recognized. Duarte identified some of the major obstacles: sampling, compatibility between conceptual and operational definitions of variables, the resulting psychometric properties of the instrument, and cross-national evidence. Given the reality of globalization, Duarte questioned whether a new paradigm of intercultural research is needed--generic competencies along with the recognition of the value of a definable set of regional competencies. Rossier's review of the cross-cultural equivalence of frequently used personality inventories could fit this call for a new type of research model. Rossier queried whether a full or partial structural cross-cultural equivalence of the Five-Factor Model existed. The conclusion was the need for more investigation to understand how culture affects the processes underlying the evaluation of personality.

Fouad and Walker seemed to provide some understanding of this question, at least in the case of the well-respected SII. Their investigation examined racial/ethnic group differences at the SII's General Occupational Themes item level using differential bundle functioning (DBF) analyses. The sample consisted of men and women from five racial/ethnic groups (N = 3,750).

  Items were grouped together based on substantive considerations to
  determine if they functioned differentially due to racial/ethnic group
  differences in role modeling, perceptions of opportunities/barriers,
  familiarity with activities, and cultural expectations, as opposed to
  true racial/ethnic group differences in interests. (Fouad & Walker, p.
  104)

For most of the item sets, the authors found very high levels of DBF. This finding implied that "diverse cultural groups have a different conditional probability of endorsing some sets of items due to the items measuring a secondary trait in addition to the main trait the scale was designed to measure" (Fouad & Walker, p. 104).

The following studies with Chinese students illustrate cross-cultural sampling issues such as sample size, varying results, and a different interest structure. Yuen et al. developed and validated the Chinese Career Development Self-Efficacy Inventory and found positive results. A confirming factor analysis showed that the six primary factors were the best fit to the data. One general factor model yielded an adequate fit.

Hampton examined the factor structure of the Career Decision Self-Efficacy Scale-Short Form (CDSES-SF) among Chinese college students. The factor structure of the original 25-item CDSES-SF was not supported by the data derived from the first sample of 256. A modified 13-item, three-factor model of the CDSES-SF fit the data well. The 13-item model was cross-validated with a second sample of 157. The cross-validation revealed that the model was invariant across the two samples. In another examination of career decision-making among Chinese college students, Tien conducted a validation study of the Career Decision-Making Difficulties Scale. A factor analysis generally supported the three group classification system. However, for the undecided students in the process of career decision making, the factor results before and during the process were mixed.

Ting and Jones adapted the Career Key to develop the Chinese Career Key. The findings, in general, supported reliability, validity, and user satisfaction. Cultural differences were noted and explained. However, when Leung and Hou conducted a confirmatory factor analysis of the SDS with a sample of Hong Kong high school students, different results emerged. The Realistic and Investigative types formed one cluster with Social loading on both the Artistic cluster and the Enterprising-Conventional clusters. It was difficult to ascertain whether the authors' results might have been affected by socioeconomic status or parental influence.

The last study we reviewed supported the structural validity of the U.S.-developed Personal Globe Inventory (PGI) in applications with Chinese. Using the randomized test of hypothesized order relations, Long, Adams, and Tracey confirmed that the PGI's spherical model and eight-type model fit the Chinese data equally as well as the U.S. data. The authors also noted that Holland's RIASEC model fit the data as well as the eight-type model. In both samples and across genders, they found no structure differences.

Continued Research With Established Measures

Several studies expanded the research-based derivation of the SDS codes. LaBarbera identified a sample from the American Academy of Physician Assistants who expressed satisfaction with their career. Based on 463 respondents, an overall profile expressed in Holland types was SIREAC. The Dictionary of Holland Occupational Codes (DHOC; Gottfredson & Holland, 1996) code for physician assistant is ISA. Gender differences occurred, with men having significant higher Realistic scores than women, including the family practice specialty. Swan identified a national sample of female apprentices of the United Brotherhood of Carpenters program. Based on 411 female and 137 male respondents, the primary R code dominated for both genders, but there was little agreement for the second and third letters of a code. Women had an RSC code, and men had an RES code. The DHOC code for carpenter apprentice is RCE. The women's Realistic scores produced well-differentiated profiles that appeared extremely high relative to the rest of the profile. This may be an example for which an analysis using the methodologies by Bullock and Reardon (below) might offer new insights into these results involving the occupation of carpenter. Swan concluded that test construction and sampling play a role in the controversy about gender bias in interest inventories.

The Position Classification Inventory (PCI) uses Holland codes to classify positions or occupations to assess person-job fit. The purpose of the study by Miller, O'Rear, Cowger, and Livingston was to analyze the degree of congruence between the DHOC (Gottfredson & Holland, 1996) classification and the PCI code for a 40-year-old female financial aid counselor. The PCI is an 84-item inventory in which a job incumbent or supervisor describes the demands, rewards, and opportunities to express or display preferences that an occupation's environment provides. The results of this study's PCI was CSE, the identical letters of the DHOC's SEC code, but in a different order, which provides some support for the instrument.

Bullock and Reardon explored the construct of profile elevation. To maximize interest inventory results, career counselors are encouraged to properly interpret profile elevation. Bullock and Reardon defined profile elevation and present correlates of high and low profile elevation. They explored the common interpretive interaction that occurs between profile elevation and differentiation. They hypothesized that profile elevation may indicate the level of energy a counselee has to give to the career decision-making process. Recognizing this information creates an efficiency in the counseling process. "Interpretation of profile elevation early in the counseling process helps the counselor to avoid taking a direction with the client that may not be helpful or well received" (Bullock & Reardon, p. 182).

Betz and Wolfe reported on the development of a version of the Expanded Skills Inventory designed for high school use. The inventory contains 14 eightitem scales that measure self-efficacy and match dimensions comparable in specificity to the Basic Interest scales of the SII. The self-efficacy or confidence measures were internally consistent, related to the appropriate Holland theme and to parallel measures of vocational interest. Patterns of gender and ethnic group differences were generally consistent with previous research findings.

Betz, Hammond, and Multon examined the reliability and validity of the Career Decision Self-Efficacy Scale's (CDSE) five-level response continuum in comparison to the 10-level continuum used in the normative studies. The study used three college samples (N = 1,832). Alpha coefficients ranged from .78 to .87 for the 5-level continuum in comparison to a range of .69 to .83 for the 10-level continuum. Criterion-related validity correlations with career indecision and vocational identity were comparable for the two response continua. Validity with respect to the scales of the Career Decision Profile was examined, as was construct validity with respect to measures of hope, good stability, and both positive and negative affect. Betz et al. concluded that a 5-level response continuum for the short form of the CDSE proved that it was at least as reliable and valid as the 10-level continuum.

New Scale Development

Lounsbury examined career decidedness using the Five Factor Model of personality traits. In the 2004 annual review, Guindon and Richmond noted that the Five Factor Model had been receiving the increased attention of career practitioners. The study's sample, using archival data, consisted of 248 Grade 7, 321 Grade 10, and 282 Grade 12 students. The Big Five personality data came from a new measure built to extend the NEO Five Factor Inventory constructs to younger clients--the Adolescent Personal Style Inventory (Lounsbury, Tatum, Gibson, Park, Sundstrom, Hamrick, et al., 2003). The criterion measure was the Career Decidedness Scale developed by Lounsbury, Tatum, Chambers, Owens, and Gibson (1999). The authors found that conscientiousness significantly and positively correlated with career decidedness in all three grades. Openness and agreeableness were found to be positively related to career decidedness for these middle and high school students. Emotional stability was significantly and positively related to career decidedness for the Grade 12 students. No significant correlational differences were noted for boys and girls. No significant mean differences in career decidedness occurred between the three grades. Studies such as this are noteworthy because they touch on career development issues across ages, the role of personality in career decision making, and the specificity of career decidedness.

Guay reported on the development and validation of the Career Decision-Making Autonomy Scale (CDMAS). The CDMAS was designed to measure intrinsic motivation, identified regulation, interjected regulation, and external regulation. The results from a longitudinal study and factor analysis found four internally consistent factors: Intrinsic Motivation, Identified Regulation, Introjected Regulation, and External Regulation Toward Career Decision-Making Activities. The author stated that the construct validity criterion-related correlation offers support for the validity of the self-reports of the four areas regarding career decision making.

Benishek, Feldman, Wolf, Mecham, and Lopez developed the Academic Hardiness Scale (AHS) to differentiate two types of students. The measure seeks an understanding of why some students avoid challenging academic course work at the risk of harming their academic standing in comparison to others who are willing to pursue these types of challenges. The original research resulted in lower alpha reliability coefficients and limited discriminant validity. A Revised Academic Harshness Scale (RAHS) resulted in improved internal consistency; test-retest reliability; and convergent, internal, and concurrent validity. Factor analysis identified the RAHS as a three-component measure.

Rottinghaus, Day, and Borgen reported on the development and validation of the Career Futures Inventory (CFI). The CFI is a 25-item measure of positive career-related adaptability and optimism. A confirmatory factor analysis with a sample of 690 college students found that a three-factor model provided an excellent fit to the data. The three subscales are Career Adaptability, Career Optimism, and Perceived Knowledge. The subscales had high internal consistency and temporal stability. Validity was supported by correlations with Big Five measures.

Technology

The technology studies presented in 2005 ranged from how the computer can enhance the training of new counselors' supervision, to evaluating the comparability of an Internet assessment measure with paper-and-pencil versions, to comparing human versus Web resources in the prediction of science career interest.

Lehr used information obtained from teaching practices to conceptualize how computers can improve the supervision of new graduate-level counseling students. Lehr used Hill and O'Grady's list of counselor intentions to develop a computer program--Counselor Assisted Supervision. The article described how the program allows beginning counselors to monitor and evaluate counseling videotapes. In addition to elaborating on the value of using the program, recommendations are provided on how the technology fits into a counselor education program.

There has been increased use of interest inventories online. Buchan, DeAngelis, and Levinson investigated the comparability of the online and paper-and-pencil versions of the Career Keys career interest inventory. Undergraduate female students (N = 61) completed both versions in a counterbalanced design 1 week apart. Test-retest reliability coefficients for the paper-and-pencil versions ranged from .70 to .91, with a mean of .84. The test-retest coefficients of the Web-based version ranged from .68 to .88, with a mean of .81. No significant differences emerged between identical scales on the two versions. Two trials of the concurrent validity of the Web-based version were also assessed using the paper-and-pencil version as a criterion measure. Trial 1 validity coefficients ranged from .62 to .86, with a mean of .75. Trial 2 coefficients ranged from .70 to .89, with a mean of .80. The authors concluded that both versions were comparable.

In an area of interest to many--the development of interest in science--Koszalka, Grabowski, and Darling investigated the predictive relationship between using human resources or resources on the Web. The participants were middle school students taking a science course. Human resources were more predictive of developing science career interest for both boys and girls. The use of the Web as a resource was only predictive of science interests for the girls. Interestingly, two other predictor variables emerged: (a) teachers who lacked a science background but used Web resources regularly and (b) the level of student-centered instructional strategies that were used in the classroom.

Vocational Evaluation Specialist: Job Functions and Knowledge Domains

Hamilton and Shumate identified the important major job functions and knowledge domains required for effective vocational evaluation practice. A survey of 800 certified vocational evaluation specialists used the Vocational Evaluation Job Task and Knowledge Inventory to validate the important job functions and knowledge domains of their practice. Findings revealed six major knowledge domains as well as six major job functions essential to contemporary vocational evaluation practice. The results suggested that the focus and time spent on specific work duties varies between employment settings. Despite the variation across employment settings, the overall role and function of vocational evaluators is more similar than different, that is, a unique common core of knowledge and job functions is necessary for all vocational evaluators. The six areas are clinical skills to analyze and synthesize data, behavioral observations and evaluation techniques, case management, occupational analysis and information; vocational counseling, and professionalism.

Career Assessment and Technology: Summary and Conclusion

Clearly the Chinese, especially those in Hong Kong, have looked at career assessments as an approach to deal with career development. It is uncertain whether the Chinese culture has difficulties in career decision making or whether an assessment that addresses self-efficacy issues in career decision making is a preferred methodology. Studies focusing on existing instrumentation continue to provide practitioners with research and developments to enhance the scales that underline their practice. Several researchers focused on interpretative approaches that address maximizing score results with clients. An observed commonality among the newer scales is the predominant role that factor analysis plays in psychometrics. Perhaps researchers need to investigate whether this reductionistic statistical procedure is not accommodating to the local and nation-specific cultural differences, as numerous authors have expressed. Technology is showing itself as a flexible methodology in developing various applications.

Annual Review--2005: Summary and Conclusion

We have found the career development and career counseling field to be a rich and exciting knowledge-based discipline. We have reported that a need exists for the discipline's services to apply this knowledge and skilled interventions. What was not found were articulated educational models or suggested curricula for the preparation and development of current and future practitioners that would allow them to assimilate this knowledge and transfer it into skillful practice. We also did not find discussions of how to attract to this field the brightest and most committed "new blood" so the careers discipline will remain viable.

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Thomas F. Harrington, Professor Emeritus, Department of Counseling and Applied Educational Psychology, Northeastern University; Theresa A. Harrigan, Career Center, Boston College. The authors thank Joan C. Harrington for the manuscript's production and editing; the assistance of Boston College Career Center student workers, especially Christopher Nunez; and Wan Isa, a student at the University of Missouri-St. Louis, and the assistant to The Career Development Quarterly editor. Correspondence regarding this article should be addressed to Thomas F. Harrington, 16 White Pine Road, Needham, MA 02492 (e-mail: [e-mail]).