Positive and negative sexual cognitions: subjective experience and relationships to sexual adjustment.

Sexual fantasies have long been of interest to sex researchers. However, much of the research in the area has suffered from serious methodological difficulties, particularly poor definitions of sexual fantasy. The underlying assumption in most conceptualizations of sexual fantasy is that these cognitions are positive in the sense that they are experienced as enjoyable and pleasant (e.g., Leitenberg & Henning, 1995; Plaud & Bigwood, 1997). However, operational definitions of sexual fantasy typically do not instruct participants to record only positive thoughts and fantasies. Instead, researchers have often considered any cognition that is sexual in content to be a sexual fantasy (Jones & Barlow, 1990: Renaud & Byers, 1999). That is, cognitions that are sexual in content have been referred to as sexual fantasies regardless of whether they are internally or externally generated, deliberately engaged in or intrusive, fleeting thoughts or more elaborate mental processes, wanted or unwanted, and perceived as positive or as negative.

Based on conceptualizations of sexual fantasy as enjoyable and pleasant cognitions, one would expect sexual fantasy to be associated with positive affect, not negative affect. However, research has shown that some individuals appraise their sexual fantasies negatively and/or experience negative affect in response to their sexual fantasies (Cado & Leitenberg, 1990). For example, Gil (1990) found that 45% of a sample of 160 conservative Christians reported that they believed their fantasies were "morally flawed or unacceptable" (p. 635). Other studies have found that substantial minorities of individuals report feeling guilty or embarrassed about their sexual fantasies (Davidson & Hoffman, 1986; Knoth, Boyd, & Singer, 1988). This suggests that some sexual fantasy studies have captured negatively experienced sexual cognitions in addition to more positively experienced sexual thoughts and fantasies. Nevertheless, research findings about sexual fantasies are often interpreted as an indication of sexual preferences (Leitenberg & Henning, 1995).

Negatively experienced sexual cognitions are likely to differ from more positively experienced sexual thoughts and fantasies in important ways. For example, using the current data set we round that positive and negative sexual cognitions differ in frequency, diversity, and content (Renaud & Byers, 1999). The purpose of the current study was to explore whether positive and negative sexual cognitions also differ in their associations with variables that have been found to be associated with sexual fantasy, and whether positive and negative sexual cognitions lead to differing affective, cognitive, and subjectively experienced physiological responses.

As research in this area has been inconsistent in terminology, it is particularly important to provide some guidelines as to how terms are used in the current paper. In reviewing past research, the current paper uses the terms employed by the original authors. For example, if the authors of a study used sexual fantasy to refer to both fleeting sexual thoughts as well as to more elaborate and ongoing sexual fantasies, this term is used when reviewing the findings of that study. However, when discussing the literature in general as well as the current study, the broader term sexual cognition is used to encapsulate a wide range of thoughts, images, and fantasies including the following: fleeting sexual thoughts or images, more elaborate and ongoing sexual fantasies, sexual thoughts that are experienced as intrusive, and, sexual thoughts and fantasies that are engaged in deliberately.

The term positive sexual cognition is used when the appraisal and/or experience of the sexual cognition is positive; that is, when respondents find the sexual thought, image, or fantasy to be acceptable, pleasant, and ego-syntonic (the type of thought one would expect to have). Therefore, irrespective of the content and regardless of whether a sexual cognition is experienced as intrusive or is engaged in deliberately, it is referred to as a positive sexual cognition if it is experienced as acceptable, pleasant, and ego-syntonic by respondents. In contrast, the term negative sexual cognition is used when the appraisal and/or experience of a sexual cognition is negative; that is, respondents find the sexual cognition to be unacceptable, unpleasant, and ego-dystonic (the type of thought one would not expect to have). Therefore, the term negative sexual cognition is used in reference to any sexual cognition that is experienced as unacceptable, unpleasant, and ego-dystonic, regardless of its content and irrespective of whether it is engaged in deliberately or is experienced as intrusive by respondents.

Sexual Cognitions and Sexual Adjustment

Early theories (e.g., Freud, 1908/1962) proposed that sexual fantasy signifies some deficiency in individuals, be it sexual dissatisfaction, frustration, deprivation, immaturity, or inhibition. However, research evidence has clearly contradicted this view of sexual fantasy. Not only do the vast majority of individuals engage in sexual fantasy, but there also is mounting research evidence to suggest that having more frequent sexual fantasies is a sign of better sexual adjustment, in that it is associated with greater sexual experience and the absence of sexual problems among both men and women (Davidson, 1985; Knafo & Jaffe, 1984; Nutter & Condron, 1983, 1985). Among women, but not men, a greater frequency of sexual fantasy has been round to be associated with greater sexual satisfaction (Alfonso, Allison, & Dunn, 1992; Arndt, Foehl, & Good, 1985), and a more positive affective orientation toward sexuality, including greater erotophilia, less sex guilt, and less sex anxiety (Fisher, Byrne, White, & Kelley, 1988; Pelletier & Herold, 1988; Purifoy, Grodsky, & Giambra, 1992). However, other research has not found relationships between the frequency of sexual fantasy and these variables (Davidson & Hoffman, 1986). The inconsistencies in research findings may be due to poor operational definitions of sexual fantasy such that these studies captured both positive and negative sexual cognitions, obscuring the relationships between these sexual cognitions and other sexuality variables.

In one of the only published studies specifically examining negative sexual cognitions, Byers, Purdon, and Clark (1998) found that negatively experienced sexual cognitions may also be associated with signs of better sexual adjustment. These investigators studied sexual intrusive thoughts that they operationalized as sexual cognitions that are ego-dystonic, and that are experienced as intrusive, unwanted, and personally unacceptable. In a regression analysis predicting the frequency of sexual intrusive thoughts from a number of sexuality variables and psychological distress variables, Byers, Purdon, and Clark round that a greater frequency of sexual intrusive thoughts was associated with more frequent obsessional thinking, greater erotophilia, and more sexual daydreams. The fact that obsessional thinking emerged as a unique predictor of the frequency of sexual intrusive thoughts is consistent with other research on intrusive thoughts in general (Purdon & Clark, 1994; Salkovskis, Richards, & Forrester, 1995), suggesting that Byers, Purdon, and Clark did capture cognitions that are experienced as intrusive, unwanted, unacceptable, and ego-dystonic. However, the fact that greater erotophilia and more sexual daydreams also emerged as unique predictors of the frequency of sexual intrusive thoughts is inconsistent with previous research on sexual thoughts/fantasies, that has found that a more negative orientation toward sex is associated with more negative appraisals of and less sexual arousal to sexual thoughts and fantasies (Follingstad & Kimbrell, 1986; Green & Mosher, 1985). As Byers, Purdon, and Clark did not have participants distinguish between their positive and their negative sexual cognitions, it may be that some of their participants reported positively experienced sexual cognitions instead of or in addition to their sexual intrusive thoughts. In support of this view, some of their participants did not appraise even their most upsetting intrusive thought negatively.

Research Objectives and Hypotheses

The first goal of this study was to examine the relationships between the frequencies of positive and negative sexual cognitions (POSCOG and NEGCOG, respectively) and a set of five sexuality variables when these two types of sexual cognitions were clearly differentiated from each other. We predicted that a greater frequency of POSCOG would be associated with signs of better sexual adjustment, including greater sexual experience (masturbation experience and number of intercourse partners), greater sexual satisfaction, fewer sexual problems, and less sexual anxiety. In contrast, we predicted that the frequency of NEGCOG would be associated with signs of poorer sexual adjustment including less sexual experience and sexual satisfaction, more sexual problems, and greater sexual anxiety. As there have sometimes been gender differences in the relationship between the frequency of sexual fantasy and various measures of sexual functioning, we also examined whether these relationships differ for men and women (Alfonso et al., 1992; Arndt et al., 1985; Purifoy et al., 1992). Finally, we included some control variables in our study. Previous research has found that individuals who report a greater tendency toward nonsexual daydreaming also report experiencing sexual fantasies more often than individuals who report less of a tendency toward daydreaming (Knafo & Jaffe, 1984). Similarly, Brannigan, Schaller, and McGarva (1993) round that individuals who respond in a more socially desirable manner reported significantly less sexual daydreaming than do individuals who responded in a less socially desirable manner. Thus, we examined the relationships between the frequencies of sexual cognitions and nonsexual daydreaming and social desirability. We also assessed the unique contributions of the sexuality variables to the frequencies of POSCOG and NEGCOG over and above the amount of nonsexual daydreaming, and socially desirable responding.

The second goal of this study was to compare respondents' affective, physiological, and cognitive responses to two specific sexual cognitions--the sexual cognition they experience as most positive, and the sexual cognition they experience as most negative. It was expected that, compared to the most negatively experienced sexual cognition, the most positively experienced sexual cognition would be associated with more positive and less negative affect, as well as with greater subjective sexual arousal. No specific predictions were made for differences between the degree of subjective general arousal reported in response to the most positive and the most negative sexual cognition. The most positive sexual cognition was also expected to be more often deliberate, and less often intrusive, than the most negative sexual cognition. Finally, based on Clark, Purdon, and Byers' (2000) finding that individuals are more likely to try to resist or control a sexual intrusive thought if they appraise the thought as highly negative, it was expected that respondents would report less frequent attempts to control their most positive sexual cognition than their most negative sexual cognition.

METHOD

Participants

Three-hundred and seven undergraduate students participated in the study. To increase the homogeneity of the sample, 6 individuals who identified themselves as homosexual were dropped from the sample. An additional 2 men and 7 women were dropped from the sample due to an excess of missing data. The final sample consisted of 292 heterosexual university students (148 women and 144 men), ranging in age from 17 to 45 years (M = 19.8, SD = 3.0). Participants were enrolled in all years of university, with the majority (59.9%) being first year students. Almost all of the participants grew up in Canada (94.9%). Although ethnicity was not assessed directly, consistent with the composition of the undergraduate population, it is estimated that the sample was overwhelmingly Caucasian.

On average, participants had experienced 2.5 serious relationships since they started dating (SD = 2.4). Just over hall (55.9%) of participants indicated that they were in an exclusive relationship (either married, cohabiting, or dating one person exclusively) at the time of the study. The average duration of these exclusive relationships was 23.1 months (SD = 35.8). Only a minority (7.6%) of participants had sought counseling from a professional in the year prior to the study; only one of these for sexual problems.

Measures

Demographic and Dating History Questionnaire. The Demographic and Dating History Questionnaire is an 11-item questionnaire that was designed to collect a wide range of demographic information including the participant's age, education level, ethnicity, religiosity, relationship status, sexual orientation, use of mental health services, and dating history.

Sexual Cognitions Checklist. The Sexual Cognitions Checklist (SCC) consists of two parts. The first part of the SCC lists 56 sexual cognitions. Participants report how often they have experienced each sexual cognition as positive (POSCOG) on a scale ranging from I have never had this thought (0) to I have this thought frequently during the day (6). Participants also report how often they have experienced each item as negative (NEGCOG) on a scale ranging from I have never had this thought (0) to I have this thought frequently during the day (6). Participants were provided with definitions of POSCOG and NEGCOG. POSCOG were defined as sexual cognitions that the participant experienced as acceptable, pleasant, and ego-syntonic (the type of thought he or she would expect to have). NEGCOG were defined as sexual cognitions that the participant experienced as unacceptable, unpleasant, and ego-dystonic (the type of thought he or she would not expect to have). The total frequency scores for POSCOG and NEGCOG were calculated by summing the item ratings.

Forty of the items on the SCC were taken directly from the Wilson Sex Fantasy Questionnaire which has been used extensively in sex fantasy research (Wilson, 1988). An additional 16 items of the SCC were taken from the Revised Obsessive Intrusives Inventory, Sex Version (ROII-v2) employed by Byers, Purdon, and Clark (1998) in their study of sexual intrusive thoughts (see Renaud & Byers, 1999, for information on the psychometric properties of these measures as well as the manner in which these measures were adapted in the development of the SCC.) Both the POSCOG and NEGCOG subscales of the SCC yielded high internal consistencies for the men ([alpha] = .95 and .96, respectively) and the women ([alpha] = .95 and .95, respectively) in the current sample.

In the second part of the SCC, participants are asked to examine the sexual cognitions they reported having experienced as positive on at least one occasion and to select which of those cognitions they had experienced as most positive (most acceptable, pleasant, and ego-syntonic). Similarly, participants are asked to examine the sexual cognitions they reported having experienced as negative on at least one occasion and to select which of those cognitions they had experienced as most negative (most unacceptable, unpleasant, and ego-dystonic). For each cognition, participants rate, on 5-point scales, the degree to which they experience each of 17 emotions (8 positive and 9 negative) in response to the cognition. Ten of these items were taken directly from the Feelings Scale (Smeaton & Byrne, 1998) which assesses affective responses to stimuli. Seven items were added to the Feelings Scale in order to capture a wider range of affective responses. Responses to the 9 negative affect items were summed to yield a measure of Negative Affect with a range of possible scores from 0 to 36. Similarly, responses to the 8 positive affect items were summed to yield a measure of Positive Affect with a range of possible scores from 0 to 32. The internal consistencies of the Positive and Negative Affect Subscales were examined in response to the most positive sexual cognition as well as the most negative sexual cognition. The Positive Affect Subscale yielded good internal consistencies in response to both the most positive and most negative sexual cognition for men ([alpha] = .74 and .86, respectively) and women ([alpha] = .76 and .85, respectively). The Negative Affect Subscale also yielded good internal consistencies in response to both the most positive and most negative sexual cognition for men ([alpha] = .71 and .77, respectively) and women ([alpha] = .80 and .76, respectively). Moreover, these internal consistencies were not improved by removing any of the individual affect items.

Using a 5-point scale ranging from never (0) to always (4), participants rated the frequency with which they experience each of seven symptoms of physiological arousal when their most positive and most negative sexual cognition occurs. Four of these items (increased heart rate, increased breathing, sweaty palms, flushing of skin) were highly positively correlated and hence were summed to create a measure of subjective general physiological arousal. The General Physiological Arousal Scale yielded good internal consistencies in response to both the most positive and most negative sexual cognition for men ([alpha] = .74 and .88, respectively) and women ([alpha] = .80 and .89, respectively). Two additional items (tingling or other sensations in the genitals, other signs of sexual arousal) were highly positively correlated and were summed to create a measure of subjective sexual arousal. The Sexual Arousal Scale also yielded acceptable internal consistencies in response to both the most positive and the most negative sexual cognition for men ([alpha] = .60 and .87, respectively) and women ([alpha] = .67 and .83, respectively). The final item (self-reported upset stomach) was negatively correlated with all of the other items and hence was used as a separate measure. In addition, three author-designed items required participants to indicate the percentage of time when (a) they have each cognition and it is purposely engaged in (Deliberate), (b) they have each cognition and it is experienced as intrusive (Intrusive), and (c) they have the cognition and they try to control it (get rid of it: Control).

Human Sexuality Questionnaire. Two items taken from the Human Sexuality Questionnaire (HSQ: Zuckerman, 1998) were used to assess sexual experience. Participants indicate the number of rimes they have engaged in masturbation on a 5-point scale ranging from never (0) to ten rimes or more (4). They also indicate the number of opposite-sex intercourse partners they have been with on a 5-point scale ranging from none (0) to four or more (4). The mean scores on these two variables were 2.3 (SD = 1.8) and 2.1 (SD = 1.6), respectively. Zuckerman (1998) provided evidence for the reliability of these two HSQ items. Higher scores by men than by women on the two scales provide evidence for their validity.

Global Measure of Sexual Satisfaction-Revised. The Global Measure of Sexual Satisfaction-Revised (GMSEX-R) was used to assess sex-life satisfaction. This measure is based on the Global Measure of Sexual Satisfaction (GMSEX) developed by Lawrance and Byers (1998) to assess satisfaction with a long-term sexual relationship. However, because this study included both individuals in a long-term sexual relationship and single individuals, the wording of GMSEX was changed from "Overall, how would you describe your sexual relationship with your partner?" to "Overall, how would you describe your current sex life?" As with the GMSEX, respondents rated their sex life on five 7-point bipolar scales: good-bad, pleasant-unpleasant, positive-negative, satisfying-unsatisfying, and valuable-worthless. Possible scores on the GMSEX-R range from 5 to 35, with higher scores indicating greater sexual satisfaction. Byers and her colleagues have provided evidence for good 2-week and 3-month test-retest reliability and high internal consistency for the GMSEX (Byers, Demmons, & Lawrance, 1998; Lawrance & Byers, 1995; 1998). Significant correlations between the GMSEX and other measures of sexual satisfaction provide evidence for the validity of GMSEX (Lawrance & Byers, 1998). The internal consistency of GMSEX-R was high for both men ([alpha] = .96) and women ([alpha] = .94) in the current sample.

Sexual Functioning Questionnaire. The Sexual Functioning Questionnaire (SFQ) was employed to examine the extent of sexual problems reported by respondents. The SFQ is based on a question used by Frank, Anderson, and Rubenstein (1978) in their study of the prevalence of sexual concerns and problems in a nonclinical population. Eight items taken from Frank et al. assess problems with inhibited sexual desire, inhibited sexual excitement, premature orgasm, inhibited orgasm, anorgasmia, inability to relax, lack of interest in sex, and feeling "turned off." Two additional items employed by Lawrance and Byers (1992) and by MacNeil and Byers (1997) were also included: A sexual partner did not want to do sexual things that I wanted to do and A sexual partner asked me to do sexual things that I do not like to do. Lawrance and Byers (1992) have provided evidence for the reliability of the SFQ. The total number of sexual problems reported on the SFQ has also been found to correlate significantly and negatively with sexual satisfaction, supporting the validity of the instrument (Lawrance & Byers, 1992; MacNeil & Byers, 1997).

Frank et al. (1978) used a yes/no format. In order to make the measure more sensitive to the frequency and severity of sexual problems (MacNeil & Byers, 1997), participants in the current study indicated the frequency with which they had experienced each of the sexual problems in the past year on a 5-point scale ranging from never (0) to always (4). The total severity of sexual problems was calculated by summing responses on the 10 items, with scores ranging from 0 to 40. The SFQ was round to have acceptable internal consistencies for men ([alpha] = .71) and for women ([alpha] = .71) in the current study.

Sexual Anxiety, Inventory. The Sexual Anxiety Inventory of the Sexual Arousability Inventory - Expanded was used to examine respondents' anxiety regarding sexual activities (SAI: Hoon & Chambless, 1998). On 6-point scales ranging from relaxing, calming (-1) to always causes anxiety, extremely anxiety producing (5), respondents indicate the degree of anxiety they experience in response to 28 sexual behaviors. The total score for the SAI is equal to the sum of all responses, for a possible range of scores from -28 to 140, with higher scores indicating greater anxiety. Byers, Purdon, and Clark (1998) found the SAI to have high internal consistency in a sample of university women and men. Hoon and Chambless (1998) reported significant negative correlations between the SAI and sexual experience and frequency of orgasm among women, supporting the validity of the SAI. The internal consistency of the SAI was high for the men ([alpha] = .98) and the women ([alpha] = .96) in the current sample.

Daydreaming Frequency Scale. The Daydreaming Frequency Scale (DFS) of the Imaginal Processes Inventory (IPI: Singer & Antrobus, 1972) was used to examine the frequency of overall (nonsexual) daydreaming. This scale consists of 12 items for which participants indicate, on 5-point-scales, how often they daydream in various situations. Scores are summed, yielding possible scores from 0 to 48, with higher scores indicating more frequent daydreaming. The DFS has been shown to have good internal consistency, test-retest reliability, and concurrent validity (Gold, Teague, & Jarvinen, 1981; Huba, Aneshensel, & Singer, 1981; Tanaka, & Huba, 1986). Internal consistencies of the DFS were high for men and women in the current sample ([alpha] = .90 and .91, respectively).

Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale. The Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale (MCSDS) is a 33-item inventory designed to assess social desirability (Crowne & Marlowe, 1960). Items reflect behaviors, traits, and personal attitudes that are culturally acceptable but are unlikely to occur. Using a true/false format, respondents indicate whether each statement is true or false as it pertains to them. Socially desirable responses are summed, yielding a possible range of scores from 0 to 33, with high scores indicating greater social desirability. Crowne and Marlowe provided evidence for the internal consistency, test-retest reliability, and construct validity of the MCSDS. In the current study, the internal consistency of MCSDS was good for men ([alpha] = .90) and for women ([alpha] = .76).

Procedure

Introductory psychology students were recruited for a study on sexual thoughts and experiences by way of sign-up sheets. Students also were recruited from other classes through class announcements and advertisements in university residences. Participants were given course credit for their participation in the study.

All participants completed the questionnaire packet, which on average took approximately 1 hour, in small groups. At each scheduled session, participants were informed of the purpose of the study. The anonymity and confidentiality of their responses, as well as their freedom to withdraw, was emphasized at this time. After signing the informed consent form, participants completed the questionnaire packet and then were given a debriefing letter that outlined some of the objectives of the study and provided a listing of phone numbers they could call if they felt troubled as a result of their participation in the study and procedures for obtaining the results of the study.

Questionnaires were presented in three different orders within the questionnaire packet. Within the constraints that the demographic and dating history questionnaire was presented first and the SCC was presented second, all possible questionnaire orders were determined. Three of these possible questionnaire orders were randomly selected and employed in the current study.

RESULTS

On average, participants reported a moderate frequency of POSCOG (M = 97.2, SD = 43.7) and NEGCOG (M = 46.7, SD = 35.6). Examination of the zero-order correlations among the five sexuality-predictor variables revealed no problems with multicollinearity (Tabachnick & Fidell, 1989). However, as the frequency of POSCOG was positively related with the frequency of NEGCOG (r = .51, p < .001 for men and r = .57, p < .001 for women), the frequency of NEGCOG was controlled when predicting the frequency of POSCOG and vice versa.

Predicting the Frequency of Positive Sexual Cognitions

A hierarchical multiple regression analysis was used to examine the relationships between the sexuality variables and the frequency of POSCOG (see Table 1). The three control variables (nonsexual daydreaming, social desirability, and the frequency of NEGCOG) were entered on Step 1, followed by the five sexuality variables (masturbation experience, number of sexual partners, sexual satisfaction, sexual anxiety, and sexual problems) on Step 2. The control variables accounted for 36% of the variance in the frequency of POSCOG, F (3, 288) = 54.81, p < .001. All three control variables were uniquely associated with the frequency of POSCOG, such that individuals who reported a greater frequency of NEGCOG and more frequent nonsexual daydreaming, and who responded in a less socially desirable manner, also reported a greater frequency of POSCOG. Adding the sexuality variables on the second step significantly increased the amount of variance accounted for, [R.sup.2]-change = .18, F-change = 22.49, p < .001. The semipartial correlations indicated that a greater frequency of POSCOG was associated with a greater amount of masturbation experience, a greater number of sexual partners, and greater sexual satisfaction. Although the zero-order correlations revealed that sexual anxiety was also significantly related to the frequency of POSCOG, this variable did not emerge as a unique predictor. The partial correlation for entering was significant for sexual anxiety (pr = -.16, p < .01), suggesting that this variable failed to emerge as a unique predictor due to shared variance with the other sexuality variables.

In order to examine gender differences in the relationships between the sexuality variables and the frequency of POSCOG, gender was entered on Step 3, and the interaction terms between gender and the sexuality variables were entered on Step 4 using partial products calculated from centered variables as recommended by Cohen and Cohen (1983). Gender added a small but significant amount to the variance accounted for in the frequency of POSCOG, [R.sup.2]-change = .02, F-change = 11.50, p < .001. The men reported a greater frequency of POSCOG than did the women. The interaction terms did not significantly improve the regression equation, [R.sup.2]-change = .00, F-change = .51, ns, indicating that the sexuality variables predicted the frequency of POSCOG equally well for men and women, and therefore was not retained. The final regression equation accounted for 57% of the variance in the frequency of POSCOG, F (9,282) = 40.25, p < .001.

Predicting the Frequency of Negative Sexual Cognitions

A similar procedure was used to examine the unique contributions of the sexuality variables to the frequency of NEGCOG while controlling for the frequency of POSCOG, nonsexual daydreaming, and social desirability (see Table 2). The control variables accounted for 32% of the variance in the frequency of NEGCOG, F (3, 288) = 44.88, p < .001. Although all three control variables were significantly correlated with the frequency of NEGCOG, only the frequency of POSCOG was uniquely associated with the frequency of NEGCOG. Adding the sexuality variables on the second step did not significantly improve the regression equation, [R.sup.2]-change = .02, F-change = 1.55, ns, indicating that the sexuality variables did not contribute to the prediction of the frequency of NEGCOG when nonsexual daydreaming, social desirability, and the frequency of POSCOG were taken into account. As the zero-order correlations between the frequency of NEGCOG and masturbation experience and number of sexual partners were significant, the partial correlations for entering were examined for these variables. The partial correlation for entering was not significant for masturbation experience (pr = -. 10), nor number of sexual partners (pr = -.05). This suggests that the relationships between the frequency of NEGCOG and masturbation experience and number of sexual partners were accounted for by the relationship between the frequency of NEGCOG and the control variables, particularly the frequency of POSCOG.

The addition of gender on the third step did not add significantly to the amount of variance accounted for in the frequency of NEGCOG, [R.sup.2]-change = .00, F-change = .02, ns. However, the addition of the interaction terms on the fourth step was marginally significant, [R.sup.2]-change = .02, F-change = 2.08, p < .06, and was interpreted due to the exploratory nature of this study. Semipartial correlations indicated that the frequency of NEGCOG was uniquely predicted by the interactions between gender and masturbation experience as well as gender and sexual satisfaction. An examination of the regression lines revealed that for the women, there was little relationship between these variables and the frequency of NEGCOG. In contrast, men who reported more frequent NEGCOG also tended to report a greater amount of masturbation experience and greater sexual satisfaction. The final regression equation accounted for 36% of the variance in the frequency of NEGCOG, F (14, 277) = 11.19, p < .001.

Most Positive and Most Negative Sexual Cognitions

Using the list of 56 sexual cognitions, participants were asked to select the sexual cognition they had experienced as most positive as well as the sexual cognition they had experienced as most negative. One-hundred and twenty-four men (86%) and 132 women (89%) selected both a most positive and a most negative sexual cognition from the list. Twenty-eight different cognitions were selected as the most positive by at least one participant. The sexual cognitions most commonly selected as the most positive by respondents were having intercourse with a loved partner (31.3%), kissing passionately (19%), having intercourse with someone I know but have hot had sex with (9.8%), and making love out of doors in a romantic setting (8.2%). Forty-two different sexual cognitions were selected as the most negative by at least one participant. The sexual cognitions most commonly selected as the most negative by respondents were having incestuous sexual relations (10.5%), being embarrassed by failure of sexual performance (10.2%), engaging in sexual activity contrary to my sexual orientation (6.6%), and being sexually victimized (6.6%).

Affective, physiological, and cognitive responses. Separate repeated measures MANOVAs were used to examine differences in affective, physiological, and cognitive responses to the most positive and most negative sexual cognition. The means for these affective, physiological, and cognitive process responses can be found in Table 3.

The MANOVA for affective responses revealed an overall effect for type of sexual cognition, F (2, 254) = 660.03, p < .001. Follow-up ANOVAs indicated that individuals reported significantly more positive affect, F (1, 255) = 1096.94, p < .001, and less negative affect, F (1, 255) = 696.48, p < .001, in response to the most positive sexual cognition than to the most negative sexual cognition.

The repeated measures MANOVA for physiological responses revealed an overall effect for type of sexual cognition, F (3, 253) = 214.50, p < .001. Follow-up ANOVAs indicated that individuals reported significantly more frequent general arousal, F (1,255) = 194.48, p < .001, and sexual arousal, F (1,255) = 562.11, p < .001, but less frequent upset stomach, F (1, 255) = 148.67, p < .001, in response to the most positive sexual cognition than to the most negative sexual cognition.

The repeated measures MANOVA for cognitive responses revealed a significant effect for type of sexual cognition, F (3,253) = 221.70, p < .001. Follow-up ANOVAs revealed that individuals reported that their most positive sexual cognition was more often deliberate, F (1,255) = 453.99, p < .001, and less often intrusive, F(1,255) = 7.88, p < .01, than their most negative sexual cognition. Respondents also attempted to control or get rid of their most positive sexual cognition less frequently than their most negative sexual cognition, F (1,255) = 352.20, p < .001.

DISCUSSION

The purpose of this study was to differentiate between positive and negative sexual cognitions as past research has subsumed both positive and negative sexual cognitions under the term sexual fantasy. The results indicate that positive and negative sexual cognitions differ in their associations with measures of sexual adjustment and in the affective, physiological, and cognitive responses associated with them. However, the frequencies of positive and negative sexual cognitions were positively related, indicating that there also was some overlap in these two types of sexual cognitions. This suggests that the relationship between sexual cognitions that are acceptable and pleasant, and those that are ego-dystonic, is complex. Our findings indicate that if sexual cognitions are to be used as an index of sexual preferences, it is important not only to know the content of individuals' sexual cognitions, but also how they experience and appraise their sexual cognitions. Moreover, the subjective appraisal of sexual cognitions may be as important as content and frequency for understanding the relationship between sexual cognitions and sexual adjustment.

Subjective Experience of Sexual Cognitions

The results suggest that individuals experience positive and negative sexual cognitions differently. As predicted, respondents reported significantly more positive affect, less negative affect, more frequent subjective general physiological and sexual arousal, and less frequent upset stomach to their most positive sexual cognition than to their most negative sexual cognition. Whereas the most negative sexual cognition was more often experienced as intrusive and resulted in more frequent attempts at thought control, the most positive sexual cognition was more often engaged in deliberately. These findings provide support for the validity of the positive and negative cognitions scales as measuring two types of sexual cognitions. It is important to note, however, that some participants experienced their most positive sexual cognition as intrusive and as causing some negative affect, and/or made some attempts at thought control. Further, some participants reported that they sometimes deliberately engaged in their most negative sexual cognition and/or that it resulted in some positive affect or sexual arousal. This is consistent with previous research (Byers, Purdon, & Clark, 1998; Davidson & Hoffman, 1986; Knoth et al., 1988; Little & Byers, 2000; Warwick & Salkovskis, 1990) and suggests that many sexual cognitions may result in positive and negative responses simultaneously. In addition, the subjective experience of a sexual cognition may be influenced not only by its content, but also by the circumstances in which it occurs or the person in the cognition. That is, at rimes individuals choose to have negative sexual cognitions rather than experiencing them as intrusions. For example, in a study of premature ejaculation, Grenier and Byers (1997) found that some men reported that they deliberately engaged in unpleasant sexual cognitions during lovemaking in attempts to delay ejaculation. Similarly, individuals may react negatively to an otherwise positive sexual cognition when they experience it as intrusive or when it occurs in a context or situation in which it is unwanted--for example, when they are trying to concentrate on work. Little and Byers (2000) found that sexual feelings toward the person in the cognition was an important factor in determining whether a sexual cognition was experienced as positive or negative.

Individuals' interpretation of the physiological arousal they experience in response to a sexual cognition may also be related to the manner in which the sexual cognition is appraised. In particular, differing emotional conditions, such as fear and excitement, can result in similar general physiological arousal. Thus, while participants reported more subjective physiological arousal in response to their most positive sexual cognition than to their most negative sexual cognition, it is unclear how the general physiological arousal was experienced or interpreted. Future research should explore how individual interpretations of their arousal relate to sexual cognitions. In addition, laboratory research is needed to explore whether positive and negative sexual cognitions result in differing levels of objectively measured physiological arousal as well as subjectively experienced arousal.

It may be that the definitions used in this study contributed to the overlap in respondents' experiences of their most negative and their most positive sexual cognitions. We defined positive sexual cognitions as cognitions that are acceptable, pleasant, and ego-syntonic, and negative sexual cognitions as cognitions that are unacceptable, unpleasant, and ego-dystonic. However, these components may not be mutually exclusive for some individuals. For example, a woman who thinks about submitting to a sexual partner may find the thought pleasant and enjoyable, but may never want to submit to a partner in real life, and may even believe that it is not right for her to have this thought. In this case, she may appraise the thought as either positive or negative, or both, and she may also experience a mixture of positive or negative responses to the thought. Qualitative research would be useful to further clarify the relative importance of the various criteria used by individuals in determining the positive-negative valence of sexual cognitions.

Sexual Preferences

In the past, researchers have not specifically defined sexual fantasy as sexual cognitions that are experienced as enjoyable and pleasant. Nevertheless, sexual fantasy items endorsed with high frequency by respondents, such as those about sexual intimacy and variety in sexual partners and/or behaviors have often been referred to as "preferred" sexual fantasies (Leitenberg & Henning, 1995). In a previous study using the current data set, we round that items reflecting intimacy and sexual variety (e.g., having intercourse with a loved partner, making love elsewhere than the bedroom, kissing passionately) were among the most commonly experienced as positive by men and women (Renaud & Byers, 1999). Out present findings reveal that items reflecting these themes were also among the most commonly selected by respondents as the most positive from the list of 56 sexual cognitions. This suggests that in some cases previous sexual fantasy research may have indeed captured preferred sexual cognitions. However, due to the lack of precision in defining sexual fantasy, studies may have also captured sexual cognitions that individuals find aversive. Renaud and Byers found that the vast majority of sexual cognitions were experienced as both positive and negative by substantial minorities of individuals. Moreover, in the current study we found that some cognition items commonly reported by respondents in previous sexual fantasy studies were selected as the most negative, but not the most positive by some respondents. Given that some past sexual fantasy studies have captured cognition items that are aversive to some individuals, it is inappropriate to infer sexual preferences from their findings.

Predicting Sexual Cognitions

Control variables. Consistent with past research on sexual fantasy (Knafo & Jaffe, 1984), a higher frequency of positive sexual cognitions was associated with higher levels of overall cognitive activity (nonsexual daydreaming). Similarly, as found by Brannigan et al. (1993), a higher frequency of positive sexual cognitions was associated with less socially desirable responding. The present results extend past research by showing that both nonsexual daydreaming and social desirability are also related to negative sexual cognitions. Thus, the frequencies of both positive and negative sexual cognitions appear to reflect a general disposition to engage in fantasies of all types and to be influenced by social desirability.

Although both daydreaming and social desirability emerged as unique predictors of the frequency of POSCOG, neither uniquely predicted NEGCOG when the frequency of positive sexual cognitions was controlled. Thus, when the overlap between positive and negative sexual cognitions is controlled, the uniquely positive aspects of sexual cognitions appear to be related to a general tendency to daydream. However, the uniquely negative aspects of sexual cognitions appear to forma particular cognitive phenomenon that is distinct from other types of cognitive activity. We round that compared to positive sexual cognitions, negative sexual cognitions were more often experienced as intrusive. Thus, the intrusive nature of negative sexual cognitions appears to set them apart from more voluntary types of cognitive activity, including nonsexual daydreaming.

It appears that there is something particularly socially undesirable about sexual cognitions that are experienced as positive. Compared to negative sexual cognitions, positive sexual cognitions were more often engaged in deliberately. Therefore, it may be that like many other sexual behaviors (e.g., masturbation, extramarital sex, anal intercourse) (Catania, 1999; Herold & Way, 1988), deliberately thinking about sex and enjoying it has a certain degree of social stigma attached. In contrast, there may be less of a social stigma associated with having sexual thoughts that are mostly experienced as intrusive and unpleasant. In a recent study of sexual and nonsexual intrusive thoughts, Clark et al. (2000) found that the more responsible individuals felt for letting an upsetting sexual intrusive thought come into their heads, the more likely they were to disapprove of t he thought. It is likely that individuals feel more responsible for having deliberate positive sexual cognitions than intrusive negative sexual cognitions, and therefore expect the former to be met with more social disapproval. Research is needed to explore the contribution of personal responsibility to the perceived social desirability of positively and negatively experienced sexual cognitions.

Sexuality variables. We predicted that, for both men and women, a greater frequency of positive sexual cognitions would reflect good sexual adjustment whereas a greater frequency of negative sexual cognitions would reflect sexual maladjustment. However, this difference between positive and negative sexual cognitions was not clearly supported as a higher frequency of both types of sexual cognitions was associated with more masturbation experience and a greater number of sexual partners. To some extent, positive and negative sexual cognitions appear to relate similarly to these sexuality variables because they themselves are positively related. This suggests that research on positive and negative sexual cognitions is likely to result in similar findings due to the overlap between the constructs. Our decision to control for the frequency of negative cognitions in the prediction of positive cognitions, and vice versa, allowed us to determine factors related to the unique aspects of each type of cognition.

In line with previous sexual fantasy research findings (Alfonso et al., 1992; Pelletier & Herold, 1988), a greater frequency of positive sexual cognitions was associated with measures reflecting better sexual adjustment, including more masturbation experience, a greater number of sexual partners, and greater sexual satisfaction. This suggests that even though sexual fantasies have not been clearly defined as positive sexual cognitions in past research, for the most part research findings regarding the relationships between sexual fantasy and other sexuality variables apply to sexual cognitions that are experienced as positive. Contrary to predictions, negative sexual cognitions did not reflect sexual maladjustment. Rather, a higher frequency of negative sexual cognitions was uniquely predicted by more masturbation experience and greater sexual satisfaction, and only for the men. Byers, Purdon, and Clark (1998) also round that negative sexual intrusive thoughts were related to better sexual adjustment. Nonetheless, masturbation experience and sexual satisfaction accounted for little of the variance in negative sexual cognitions. Thus, the current research extends the findings of Byers, Purdon, and Clark by demonstrating that, especially among women, the relationships between better sexual adjustment and negative sexual cognitions is largely due to the overlap between positive and negative sexual cognitions. Further, the fact that the sexuality variables did account for a substantial percentage of the variance in the frequency of positive sexual cognitions suggests that positive sexual cognitions are more "sexual" than are negative sexual cognitions. Byers, Purdon, and Clark (1998) also round that a greater frequency of sexual intrusive thoughts was associated with obsessionality. Perhaps negative sexual cognitions, whether experienced as intrusive or not, are more related to psychological functioning than to sexual functioning.

CONCLUSION

The results of this study provide support for the importance of differentiating between positive and negative sexual cognitions. Renaud and Byers (1999) demonstrated that positive sexual cognitions are more frequent and diverse than negative sexual cognitions. This study demonstrates that whereas positive sexual cognitions are related to sexual adjustment, negative sexual cognitions have little to do with sexual adjustment for men or for women. Further, out findings that negative sexual cognitions are associated with sexuality variables for men but not for women raises questions about interpretation of past research chat has often combined male and female samples (e.g., Byers, Purdon, & Clark, 1998; Knafo & Jaffe, 1984). As with most past research on sexual cognitions, this study used a young, heterosexual, unmarried student sample. Research is needed to determine the extent to which the results are generalizable to other populations.

Our results indicate that individuals' responses to their sexual cognitions are complex. Thus, while positive sexual cognitions are associated with positive affect and positive cognitive and physiological responses in general, this is not always the case. Similarly, negative sexual cognitions do not invariably produce negative responses. Assessment of sexual fantasy and negative sexual cognitions needs to capture this complexity by taking a multidimensional approach that includes assessment of content, frequency, affective responses, physiological responses, and cognitive responses. Without this type of assessment, it is impossible to infer sexual preferences from reports of sexual cognitions or fantasies as has often been done in the past (Leitenberg & Henning, 1995.) It may be that sexual cognitions that are appraised negatively and/or are associated with negative affect reflect activities or behaviors chat individuals find aversive. Thus, if sexual preferences are to be inferred from sexual cognitions, researchers need to assess only sexual cognitions that are experienced as acceptable, pleasant, and ego-syntonic by individuals and chat lead to positive affect as well as subjectively experienced sexual and general physiological arousal. Although further research examining the association between negative sexual cognitions and specific sexual behaviors is needed, it may be chat cognitions chat are experienced as unacceptable, unpleasant, and ego-dystonic, and that lead to negative affect and attempts at thought control, reflect sexual dislikes.

Table 1. Hierarchical Regression Analyses Predicting the
Frequency of POSCOG

                                    Positive sexual cognitions

Step                             r      [beta]      sr       [R.sup.2]-
                                                               change

1-Control variables                                           .36 ***
  Nonsexual daydreaming        .29 ***    .15      .18 **
  Social desirability         -.24 ***   -.15     -.18 **
  Frequency of negative
    sexual cognitions          .56 ***    .50      .52 ***

2-Sexuality variables                                         .18 ***
  Masturbation experience      .50 ***    .32      .40 ***
  Number of sexual partners    .36 ***    .17      .22 ***
  Sexual problems             -.02       -.05     -.08
  Sexual satisfaction          .16 **     .08      .12 *
  Sexual anxiety              -.12 *     -.05     -.07

3-Gender                      -.44 ***   -.18      .20 ***    .02 ***

4-Interaction terms                                           .00

Note. [R.sup.2] = .57, F (9, 282) = 40.25, p < .001. N = 292 (144 men
and 148 women).

* p < .05. ** p < .01. *** p < .001.
Table 2. Hierarchical Regression Analyses Predicting the
Frequency of NEGCOG

                                  Negative sexual cognitions

Step                          r      [beta]     sr       [R.sup.2]-
                                                           change

1-Control variables
  Nonsexual daydreaming    .23 ***     .07     .09        .32 ***
  Social desirability     -.14 *       .01     .01
  Frequency of positive
    sexual cognitions      .56 ***     .54     .52 ***

2-Sexuality variables                                     .02
  Masturbation
    experience             .23 ***    -.04    -.04
  Number of sexual
    partners               .15 **     -.04    -.04
  Sexual problems          .08         .09     .10
  Sexual satisfaction      .08         .01     .01
  Sexual anxiety           .03         .08     .10

3-Gender                  -.20 ***     .01     .01        .00

4-Interaction terms                                       .02 *
  Gender X masturbation
    experience                        -.40    -.12 *
  Gender X number of
    sexual partners                    .12     .04
  Gender X sexual
    problems                           .10     .04
  Gender X sexual
    satisfaction                      -.33    -.12 *
  Gender X sexual
    anxiety                            .17     .06

Note. [R.sup.2]= .57, F (14, 277) = 11.19, p < .001. N = 292
(144 men and 148 women).

* p < .05. ** p < .01. *** p < .001.
Table 3. Affective, Physiological, and Cognitive Responses to
the Most Positive and Most Negative Sexual Cognition

                                      Most positive     Most negative

                           Range of
                           possible     M       SD       M         SD
                            scores

Affective response
  Positive affect           0-32      23.67    4.65    6.98 **    6.56
  Negative affect           0-36       5.88    4.78   19.71 **    7.91

Subjective physiological
    response
  General arousal           0-32       8.55    3.27    4.71 **    4.15
  Sexual arousal            0-8        4.82    1.93    1.29 **    1.93
  Upset stomach             0-4         .59     .80    1.72 **    1.40

Cognitive process
  Deliberate                0-100     56.06   24.26   16.88 **   21.92
  Intrusive                 0-100     44.73   22.89   51.91 *    34.26
  Control                   0-100     20.39   19.80   66.06 **   33.08

Note. N = 256 (124 men and 132 women).
* p < .01. ** p < .001.

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Manuscript accepted September 5, 2001

Cheryl A. Renaud and E. Sandra Byers University of New Brunswick, Canada

This research was part of the doctoral dissertation of the first author under the supervision of the second author. The authors sincerely thank David Clark, Richard Nicki, and the University of New Brunswick sexuality research group for their helpful comments throughout the research process.

Address correspondence to E. Sandra Byers, Ph.D. Department of Psychology University of New Brunswick Fredericton, N.B., Canada E3B 6E4: e-mail: [e-mail].