Police response to street people: a survey of perspectives and practices.A growing awareness concerning the homeless in our society prompts questions concerning government responses to the problem. However, this quickly reveals a kind of paradox, since few jurisdictions operate government agencies with the responsibility or resources to deal adequately with the diverse needs of the homeless. These unfulfilled needs range from the obvious--food and shelter--to the more subtle but no less serious--mental and physical rehabilitation physical rehabilitation See Physical therapy. , substance abuse treatment, physical safety, child care, education, and skills training. Yet, except for the police, many locales have no 24-hour social service agency that can provide even rudimentary rudimentary /ru·di·men·ta·ry/ (roo?di-men´tah-re) 1. imperfectly developed. 2. vestigial. ru·di·men·ta·ry adj. 1. assistance to the homeless. Moreover, because a police department represents the only municipal agency that spends significant time "on the streets," it will most likely encounter the homeless on a regular basis. For these reasons, police managers should work to understand better the problem of homelessness, and departments should develop comprehensive strategies to deal with the social, economic, and constitutional issues surrounding treatment of the homeless. EARLY RESEARCH Previous research on homelessness addressed a wide range of issues, including one particular area of concern to criminal justice officials-the extent of criminality among the homeless.(1) On this point, most research indicates that although the homeless have higher overall arrest rates than the general population, the vast majority of their offenses do not involve violence or even threats of violence against others.(2) Rather, the police most often arrest the homeless for public intoxication Public intoxication, also known as "drunk and disorderly conduct" (sometimes, incorrectly, as "drunken disorderly"), is a summary offence in many countries. The laws regarding drunkenness vary wildly from one legislative body to the next and are open to a certain amount of , followed by theft/shoplifting, violation of city ordinances, and burglary.(3) The findings also suggest that criminality among the homeless varies with amount of time spent on the streets.(4) For example, a 1988 study concluded that the chronically homeless were more likely to be dysfunctional and to become involved in the criminal justice system. This research further found that the chronically homeless tended to experience severe social dysfunction in early adolescence and would most likely be arrested when they appeared "... threatening in their behaviors and exhibited these behaviors in public places."(5) Other research identifies the positive correlation Noun 1. positive correlation - a correlation in which large values of one variable are associated with large values of the other and small with small; the correlation coefficient is between 0 and +1 direct correlation between serious personal problems, such as chemical dependency chemical dependency n. A physical and psychological habituation to a mood- or mind-altering drug, such as alcohol or cocaine. chemical dependency , chronic bad health, or mental illness, and homelessness.(6) Similarly, another study suggests that temporary homelessness remains predominately an economic issue, while chronic homelessness involves mental illness and substance abuse.(7) Therefore, responses to homelessness should take an integrated approach of mental health treatment, substance abuse counseling, social service, and employment assistance. This brief look at previous research affirms several important issues. The pervasive problems of mental illness and substance abuse--not simply extreme poverty--underlie the conditions of the chronically homeless. For this reason, economic support programs alone will not resolve the problem. Therefore, when law enforcement agencies A law enforcement agency (LEA) is a term used to describe any agency which enforces the law. This may be a local or state police, federal agencies such as the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) or the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA). develop policies and practices to respond to the needs of the homeless, cooperation with mental health agencies and substance abuse centers is an integral key to success. Effective programs require cooperative efforts from a wide range of fields--the police cannot and should not be expected to do it all. THE PERF perf - chad STUDY To provide some additional framework for law enforcement agencies in this area, the Police Executive Research Forum (PERF) recently conducted a comprehensive nationwide study of police policies concerning the homeless.(8) Researchers mailed questionnaires to chief executives of all municipal, county, and consolidated law enforcement agencies serving populations of 50,000 or more, or having 100 or more sworn officers.(a) Perhaps owing to owing to prep. Because of; on account of: I couldn't attend, owing to illness. owing to prep → debido a, por causa de the relevance and importance attached to this issue, the survey benefited from an unusually high response rate of over 80 percent, with 521 agencies returning completed survey forms. Perceived Problems Somewhat surprisingly, data from the PERF study revealed that police executives do not see the presence of homeless persons An individual who lacks housing, including one whose primary residence during the night is a supervised public or private facility that provides temporary living accommodations; an individual who is a resident in transitional housing; or an individual who has as a primary residence a as a very significant problem in their communities. When asked to rate the presence of "street people" as a police problem, nearly one-half of the respondents (49.8 percent) indicated that homelessness was only a cursory cur·so·ry adj. Performed with haste and scant attention to detail: a cursory glance at the headlines. [Late Latin curs problem. These findings may appear somewhat puzzling given the extent of media coverage and public discussion regarding the homeless issue. The findings are also enigmatic en·ig·mat·ic or en·ig·mat·i·cal adj. Of or resembling an enigma; puzzling: a professor's enigmatic grading system. See Synonyms at ambiguous. in light of the distinct trend in American law enforcement toward problem-oriented and community-oriented policing A philosophy that combines traditional aspects of law enforcement with prevention measures, problem-solving, community engagement, and community partnerships. From the 1930s to the 1960s, U.S. law enforcement relied on a professional policing model. , both of which broaden the traditional scope of policing responsibilities into public service areas.(10) Yet, these survey results suggest that these precepts have not influenced perceptions of homelessness as a policing problem. Referrals While the police see the need for more general referral resources to provide social assistance to the homeless, the majority of respondents (61.2 percent) disagreed or strongly disagreed that the number of street people is too high to deal with effectively. This reinforces the findings that law enforcement executives do not perceive the presence of street people to be a problem of any magnitude. And, though respondents clearly favored establishing more social referral agencies, the police executives indicated that their departments enjoy good relationships with those agencies that already exist. Police Concerns Still, two areas of broad concern did emerge among the respondents. First, police executives overwhelmingly agreed (92.7 percent) that the presence of street people increases the fear of crime among citizens. Second, a majority of respondents (74.6 percent) believed that the conditions in which street people live pose a public health hazard public health hazard A chemical or other substance known to be hazardous, based on the effects of long-term exposures thereto . While the strength of these concerns may seem to contradict con·tra·dict v. con·tra·dict·ed, con·tra·dict·ing, con·tra·dicts v.tr. 1. To assert or express the opposite of (a statement). 2. To deny the statement of. See Synonyms at deny. the overriding belief that street people do not pose a serious police problem, one respondent's comments may provide further insight: "|This~ is not strictly a police problem and requires, like domestic abuse, a multidisciplinary approach multidisciplinary approach A term referring to the philosophy of converging multiple specialties and/or technologies to establish a diagnosis or effect a therapy . Police are strictly a stopgap measure dealing with immediate problems and are not equipped to deal with root causes." This suggests that police responsibility in this area is transient. Yet, reality dictates that the police are generally the first, and many times the only, resource available to provide aid to the homeless. Police Policies and Procedures Policies and Procedures are a set of documents that describe an organization's policies for operation and the procedures necessary to fulfill the policies. They are often initiated because of some external requirement, such as environmental compliance or other governmental Still, respondents revealed that fewer than 10 percent of the surveyed departments established formal policies that specifically addressed the homeless. Nearly one-quarter of the departments adopted specific policies dealing with juvenile street people--predominately directed toward runaway and "thrownaway" youths. However, police typically dealt with the other street people as a function of custom under peripherally related issues, such as substance addiction referral policies. Given that the majority of law enforcement executives did not view the presence of street people as a major police problem, it is not surprising that one-half of the responding agencies had no training programs in place dedicated to handling the homeless. Where specific instruction did exist, the most common form was roll-call training (25 percent), followed by a training session for new officers (20 percent), with 11.5 percent of departments offering inservice training concerning street people. The average length of training sessions for new officers on homelessness-related issues was 6 hours, while the average for inservice training was 4.9 hours. For both recruit and inservice training, departments tended to use trainers from both the police department staff and other sources, such as social service providers. Training typically dealt with basic procedures and referral policies. On a related issue, 65 percent of the departments reported that they were regularly informed concerning the availability of shelters for street people, while fewer than 30 percent of the shelters informed officers concerning capacity. Again, roll-call training was the most common method of informing officers about shelter availability. Working with Other Service Agencies Overall, the respondents expressed satisfaction with community resources available to assist street people on matters related to food, shelter, medical assistance, clothing, and related factors. Still, respondents did identify several important shortcomings A shortcoming is a character flaw. Shortcomings may also be:
An average of 6.6 shelters existed in each responding jurisdiction, with religious organizations and charities sponsoring the majority (as opposed to governmental sponsorship). Most of these shelters provided short-term housing for 1 week or less. A number of shelters "specialized" to address unique social needs, such as battered women, runaways, and substance abusers. Over 80 percent of the responding police departments provided transportation for individuals requiring shelter, although the circumstances under which they transported street people to shelters varied. Yet, despite their reliance on shelters, fewer than 5 percent of police departments reported having a formal agreement with these organizations to make referrals. On a related point, 17 percent of the respondents indicated that their agencies had personnel assigned specifically to deal with the needs of street people, either on a full-time or part-time basis. Once again, the assignment of personnel to address the needs of the homeless appears to be related to the perception of homelessness as a problem. Though these numbers remain small, they represent a connection between the identification of homelessness as a problem and the decision to designate departmental resources to aid street people. OBSERVATIONS The respondents in this survey reflected jurisdictions in which large populations of street people could be expected. Despite this, the respondents consistently declined to rate the presence of street people as a significant problem in comparison to all police responsibilities. Indeed, this finding was but one of many that challenged widely held beliefs about the homeless. Impact on Community Conditions Both the police and the public tend to view street people as a "public nuisance public nuisance n. a nuisance which affects numerous members of the public or the public at large, as distinguished from a nuisance which only does harm to a neighbor or a few private individuals. ." Moreover, respondents indicated the presence of street people increased the fear of crime and presented a health hazard health hazard Occupational safety Any agent or activity posing a potential hazard to health. Cf Physical hazard. to their communities. At the same time, however, respondents reported that the homeless rarely commit serious crimes. Rather, they generally come to the attention of police due to public intoxication, panhandling, or exhibiting behavior that is problematic--but not criminal. It appears that public fear of the homeless as a contributing factor to crime is based predominantly on the mere presence and appearance of street people and not on a quantifiable link between homelessness and crime. Social Assistance Respondents consistently reported that with respect to services for the homeless, assistance is available in terms of food, shelter, medical assistance, and chemical dependency. In essence, this may infer that the United States United States, officially United States of America, republic (2005 est. pop. 295,734,000), 3,539,227 sq mi (9,166,598 sq km), North America. The United States is the world's third largest country in population and the fourth largest country in area. does a better job of dealing with the homeless than has traditionally been thought. This is not to imply, however, that improvements cannot be made, nor is it intended to understate un·der·state v. un·der·stat·ed, un·der·stat·ing, un·der·states v.tr. 1. To state with less completeness or truth than seems warranted by the facts. 2. the magnitude of social conditions related to homelessness. Rather, it appears that from a social assistance perspective, the picture may not be as bleak as is widely believed. Substance Abuse The survey revealed a strong perception among the police that the homeless population consists largely of substance abusers. While this finding correlates with other research,(11) the possibility also exists that police simply have greater contact with those street people who abuse alcohol or drugs. It is certainly conceivable that chemically dependent street people are more likely to draw the attention of the police and the public. Thus, if the vast majority of homeless-related police contacts are with street people who are substance abusers, the police may then generalize generalize /gen·er·al·ize/ (-iz) 1. to spread throughout the body, as when local disease becomes systemic. 2. to form a general principle; to reason inductively. this behavior to all homeless people. Of course, the alternate cannot be simply discarded dis·card v. dis·card·ed, dis·card·ing, dis·cards v.tr. 1. To throw away; reject. 2. a. To throw out (a playing card) from one's hand. b. : It is similarly conceivable that substance abuse is a significant problem permeating per·me·ate v. per·me·at·ed, per·me·at·ing, per·me·ates v.tr. 1. To spread or flow throughout; pervade: "Our thinking is permeated by our historical myths" the homeless population. Police Policies Given the tendency of law enforcement toward comprehensive recordkeeping, this survey detected a surprisingly limited store of police data on the homeless. When agencies did keep records, the information generally was collected and maintained because homeless persons were either accused of committing or were victims of a crime, or because a report was required for referral to a shelter. Since most departments did not code their records to designate the nature or frequency of contacts with street people, their estimates of the nature of the problem were consequently more intuitive than empirical. POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS Given the media's coverage of homelessness, the study's findings draw attention to several important questions. Are police executives misinformed concerning the degree of homelessness in their jurisdictions? Is the magnitude of the problem on a national level less than that inferred by the media? Are regional variations in the number of street people and the availability of services significantly distinct to make homelessness a selective policy issue? Do the police lack sensitivity to the problem because of the lack of good reporting and recordkeeping on matters related to the homeless? Based on this study, certain factors emerged that require greater attention. The following recommendations could lead to enhanced policy development in this area. Specifically, law enforcement agencies should: * Consider conducting a census, perhaps in cooperation with other government or social service agencies, to assess the degree of homelessness within their jurisdictions accurately * Look closely at the extent of homelessness within their communities and conduct a strategic analysis of actual needs * Establish detailed recordkeeping procedures regarding contacts with street people, including the outcomes of these contacts * Work with shelters and social assistance agencies to create formalized for·mal·ize tr.v. for·mal·ized, for·mal·iz·ing, for·mal·iz·es 1. To give a definite form or shape to. 2. a. To make formal. b. policies and procedures regarding referrals and police transportation of street people * Increase communication and coordination of efforts with social service agencies and shelters * Instruct recruit and inservice personnel on issues, problems, and referral resources for the homeless * Develop record-coding systems to document contacts with street people (including subcodes concerning the nature of the contact), to allow for a more-detailed analysis of interaction with the homeless, which will result in both better service and a more accurate picture of the homeless problem. In addition, police departments should consider working closely with social service agencies, religious organizations, and advocates for the homeless to enhance access to medical and child care services and to assist the homeless in obtaining skills training and work. CONCLUSION This study simply reflects the prevailing attitudes of law enforcement managers around the Nation regarding homelessness. Understanding the complex issues involved and developing policies to deal with the homeless enable law enforcement agencies to make real contributions to the quality of life in their communities. A well-planned response to the problem of homelessness allows departments to manage significant social problems, while making efficient use of police resources. Endnotes 1 Pamela J. Fisher, "Criminal Activity Among the Homeless: A Study of Arrests in Baltimore," Hospital and Community Psychiatry com·mu·ni·ty psychiatry n. Psychiatry focusing on detection, prevention, early treatment, and rehabilitation of emotional and behavioral disorders as they develop in a community. , 39:1, 1988, 46-51; Peter H. Rossi, Down and Out in America: The Origins of the Homeless (Chicago: University of Chicago Press The University of Chicago Press is the largest university press in the United States. It is operated by the University of Chicago and publishes a wide variety of academic titles, including The Chicago Manual of Style, dozens of academic journals, including , 1989); Brent B. Benda, "Crime, Drug Abuse, Mental Illness, and Homelessness," Deviant Behavior For the scholarly journal, see . “Deviant” redirects here. For other uses, see Deviant (disambiguation). Deviant behavior is behavior that is a recognized violation of social norms. Formal and informal social controls attempt to prevent or minimize deviance. , 8:4, 361-375; Andrea Solarz, An Examination of Criminal Behavior Among the Homeless, a paper presented to the annual meeting of the American Society of Criminology The American Society of Criminology is an international organization which embraces scholarly, scientific, and professional knowledge regarding the etiology, prevention, control, and treatment of crime and delinquency. , San Diego, California “San Diego” redirects here. For other uses, see San Diego (disambiguation). San Diego is a coastal Southern California city located in the southwestern corner of the continental United States. As of 2006, the city has a population of 1,256,951. , 1985. 2 David A. Snow, Susan G. Baker, and Leon Anderson, "Criminality and Homeless Men: An Empirical Assessment." Social Problems, 36:5, 1989, 532-549. 3 Ibid. 4 Ibid. 5 John R. Belcher, "Are Jails Replacing the Mental Health System for the Homeless Mentally Ill?" Community Mental Health Journal, 24:3, 1988, 185-195. 6 Martha R. Burt and Barbara E. Cohen cohen or kohen (Hebrew: “priest”) Jewish priest descended from Zadok (a descendant of Aaron), priest at the First Temple of Jerusalem. The biblical priesthood was hereditary and male. , "Differences Among Homeless Single Women, Women with Children, and Single Men," Social Problems, 36.5, 1989, 508-524. 7 Lillian Gelberg, Lawrence S Lawrence. 1 City (1990 pop. 26,763), Marion co., central Ind., a residential suburb of Indianapolis, on the West Fork of the White River. It has light manufacturing. 2 City (1990 pop. 65,608), seat of Douglas co., NE Kans. . Linn linn n. Scots 1. A waterfall. 2. A steep ravine. [Scottish Gaelic linne, pool, waterfall.] , and Barbara Leake, "Mental Health, Alcohol and Drug Use, and Criminal History Among Homeless Adults," American Journal of Psychiatry The American Journal of Psychiatry (AJP) is the most widely read psychiatric journal in the world. It covers topics on biological psychiatry, treatment innovations, forensic, ethical, economic, and social issues. , 145:2, 1988, 191-196. 8 This project was funded by a grant from the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, charitable organization devoted exclusively to health care issues. It was established in 1936 by Robert Wood Johnson (1893–1968), board chairman of the Johnson & Johnson medical products company. to the Police Executive Research Forum (PERF). The opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation or PERF. For purposes of this study, the issues studied were somewhat broader than just the homeless. A street person is defined as an individual who spends the majority of time in public for nonjob-related reasons, regardless of whether they have a regular and adequate overnight residence. For readability, the terms "homeless" and "street people" are used synonymously in this article. 9 State police agencies were not included in this survey because of the relatively low rate of interaction between State police/highway patrol officers and street people. This survey data does not represent a sample. Rather, results reflect the attitudes, perceptions, and experiences of 80.2 percent of the total defined research population. 10 Robert C. Trojanowicz and David L. Carter, The Philosophy and Role of Community Policing (East Lansing, Michigan East Lansing is a city in the U.S. state of Michigan. The city is located directly east of Lansing, Michigan, the state's capital. Most of the city is within Ingham County, though a small portion lies in Clinton County. : National Foot Patrol Center. Michigan State University Michigan State University, at East Lansing; land-grant and state supported; coeducational; chartered 1855. It opened in 1857 as Michigan Agricultural College, the first state agricultural college. , 1988); Robert Trojanowicz and Bonnie bon·ny also bon·nie adj. bon·ni·er, bon·ni·est Scots 1. Physically attractive or appealing; pretty. 2. Excellent. Bucqueroux, Community Policing (Cincinnati: Anderson Publishing Company); James Q. Wilson James Q. Wilson (born May 27, 1931) in Denver, Colorado is the Ronald Reagan professor of public policy at Pepperdine University in California, and a professor emeritus at UCLA. From 1961 to 1987 he was a professor of government at Harvard University. He has a Ph.D. and George Kelling  George Clyde Kell (born August 23, 1922 in Swifton, Arkansas) is a former Major League Baseball third baseman and right-handed batter who , "Broken
Windows," The Atlantic Monthly, March 1982, 29.
11 Supra A relational DBMS from Cincom Systems, Inc., Cincinnati, OH (www.cincom.com) that runs on IBM mainframes and VAXs. It includes a query language and a program that automates the database design process. note 1. |
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