Path of the Tapir: integrating biological corridors, ecosystem management, and socioeconomic development in Costa Rica. (cases).

Abstract

To address crises of ecosystem degradation and poverty in the central-southern Pacific coastal region of Costa Rica, communities must cooperatively define problems, goals, and strategies. The Path of the Tapir Program is not only about sustainable development for this region, but also serves as a model for the regional Mesoamerican Biological Corridor Initiative. This paper explores the case from a policy sciences perspective to reveal strengths and gaps in processes that might hinder program success. This case provides lessons that are useful in many settings within Mesoamerica by identifying shortcomings in decision making and methods to address them and illustrating how local leadership and involvement can help program managers identify diverse perspectives, values, and strategies of those who participate in or are directly affected by a selected program. In this way, managers can learn to avert social conflict and, in some instances, leverage conflict for constructive progress toward program goals.

Introduction

In the face of ecosystem degradation and poverty, communities in the central-southern Pacific coastal region of Costa Rica have demonstrated their ability to organize and self-govern through local committees, commissions, and associations (Rodriguez 2000; Stroud pers. comm.; Fernandez et al. 2000). Nonetheless, many factors contribute to a lack of coordinated, effective effort to address regional problems. Specifically, communities lack common principles and practices for identifying problems, amassing knowledge, and translating knowledge into action.

Corredor Biologico Paso de la Danta (CBPD), or Path of the Tapir, is a locally-run effort to establish forest corridors along the Tinamastes and Costena mountain ranges that parallel the central Pacific coast of Costa Rica. CBPD seeks to integrate conservation and socioeconomic development to capture social and economic benefits from the sustainable management of the region's resources. This paper analyzes the Path of the Tapir Program. The following sections present a contextual analysis of the program, analyze the history of the central problems, and provide alternatives for strengthening the local institutional and organizational foundations of the program.

What is the problem?

The geographic area of CBPD is rich in cultural, biological, and habitat diversity. However, all three are threatened due to impediments to decision making and poor communication and cooperation between key program participants.

Path of the Tapir spans roughly 50 km in length, connecting Los Santos National Forest Reserve, Chirripo National Park, and La Amistad Biosphere Reserve with a mangrove estuarine system and a network of protected areas on the Osa Peninsula, including Corcovado National Park (see Figure 1). The elevation ranges from sea level to 1100 meters, with the 300- to 800-meter zone identified as the priority area for forest conservation and establishing corridors (Rodriguez 2000). The program area is principally located in the dry forest on the western slope of the coastal range, with distinct wet (May-November) and dry (December-May) seasons, and annual rainfall of about 4000 millimeters. Twenty-nine rivers run through this landscape, some reaching up to 30 meters wide (Rodriguez 2000).

[FIGURE 1 OMITTED]

While some endangered species, including large mammals such as tapir (Tapirus bairdii) and anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla) no longer inhabit the region, other endangered species such as margay (Leopardus wiedii), ocelot (Leopardus pardalis), jaguar (Panthera onca) and the trees quira (Caryodaphnopsis burgeri)--endemic to this region, alazan (Tachigali versicolor), ajo (Caryocar costaricensis), carey (Elaeoluma glabrescens), mimillo (Minquartia guianensis), and ojoche (Brosimum alicastrum) are still found in a few forested areas within this region (Rodriguez 2000; Stroud pers. comm.). The program area hosts many small mammal species, including 58 identified species of bats which serve as important pollinators (Rodriguez 2000). More than 320 bird species have been identified at Hacienda Baru a 336 hectare reserve within CBPD boundaries (Stroud pers. comm.). Forty-one reptile species and 24 amphibian species were identified during a rapid assessment conducted in early 2000 (Rodriguez 2000). All of these species are directly affected by CBPD, although there are few formal mechanisms to give them voice in decision-making.

In addition to the terrestrial system, nearshore coral reefs, humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) migrations, and Olive Ridley sea turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea) nesting grounds are some of the area's most prominent marine and coastal features.

Over the past century, natural habitat has been converted to agricultural uses throughout the region. This process has been stimulated by local and national settlement and development policies (Castro and Murillo 1997). Between 1960 and 1990, an expanding cattle industry was a major contributing factor to deforestation (Rodriguez 2000). Currently, industrial logging and the need for fuelwood reduce forested areas, resulting in ecological degradation (Stroud pers. comm.). As a result of these trends many species have now disappeared from the region or are found only in small, isolated pockets (Rodriguez 2000).

As a basis for economic development, The Nature Conservancy (TNC) identified at least 40 tree species of commercial timber interest, along with 43 species of orchids, 31 species of palms, 13 species of heliconias, eight species of begonias, seven species of costaceas, and 20 species of bromeliads (Rodriguez 2000). The presence of diverse mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians, as well as large forested areas and secure water sources, are important for ecologically-based tourism.

Path of the Tapir encompasses 28 communities, focusing on conserving privately-owned lands (Rodriguez 2000). Because all properties within the proposed corridor area are privately owned, outreach to and participation from all the communities--including hundreds of individual landowners and two dozen organizations--are necessary for the program to successfully achieve its goals. The program must reconcile opposing perceptions of resource management, development, and wildlife conservation.

Clark and Wallace (1998) outlined methods for evaluating social processes in wildlife conservation and related programs. For CBPD, the `social map' identifies (a) the major and minor participants; (b) their expectations and demands with respect to land management, economic development, and conservation; (c) the values that motivate their desires and actions; and (d) the situation in which the participants interact.

Path of the Tapir participants can be grouped into three main in-country clusters: community organizations; government; and landowners. Community organizations are clustered into seven sub-groups: cooperatives (local membership institutions organized around the production, collection, and distribution of agricultural products); foundations; women's groups; environmental groups; agricultural groups; community development associations; and the CBPD Coordinating Committee (Stroud pets. comm.; Rodriguez 2000). The government is represented by an appointed local liaison between the program and the Ministry of Environment and Energy (MINAE). National ministries and municipal government agencies have direct interests in and influence on the program. Finally, landowners fall into two subgroups: those landowners who participate in conservation management practices and those who do not. A fourth general category, participant observers, includes the author and other outside analysts and scientists who study or evaluate the program.

Participants' perspectives often differ, and thus their expectations and demands on the program differ as well. Tracking CBPD participants' perspectives is especially important because the region's demographics are currently undergoing rapid change (Stroud pers. comm.). Families who have farmed in the region for generations are selling their farms to foreigners and migrating from the rural communities to the more populated towns both within and outside the program area. These shifts in demographics and land ownership will affect the program, as land-use patterns, economic power, and views toward the natural environment change within the region.

Also notable is the recent coordination between diverse community groups throughout the region to address the problem of declining freshwater resources. This effort resulted in a broad-based, regionally supported petition to MINAE and the municipality to protect watersheds by suspending new logging permits (Stroud pers. comm.). While at times the diverse groups within the communities have cooperated well, this is typically only accomplished in response to crisis. More commonly, participants compete for power and control of limited funds, yielding a process marked by little coordination between organizations to identify common ground in perspectives, to plan cooperatively, or to negotiate and resolve conflicts in ways that further common goals.

Social maps may be used to help participants understand the broader social context within which they exist so they can better consider alternative positions to their own. "By making use of the different values that exist among people and societies, we can protect a wider swath of nature--and more fully appreciate biodiversity and the needs of human generations to come" (Perlman and Wilson 2000:3). A successful project will be adaptable, considering the diverse institutional cultures of participant organizations as well as the diverse social cultures of the region's inhabitants. CBPD has the opportunity to draw participants in through open, participatory processes. Success depends on the participants' abilities to collectively identify and address problems.

Path of the Tapir's 13-year history can be analyzed through the six-phase decision process (Brewer and deLeon 1983). This framework helps to identify positive aspects and gaps in decision making which call for interventions. "Human decisions ... determine whether species and ecosystems will thrive or vanish. Focusing on improving the human decision-making process is therefore key to achieving sustainability" (Clark et al. 2001:11).

In 1987, a small group of people within one community initiated a process to integrate economic development and ecosystem management by investing in social and natural capital with a long-term outlook for the region as a whole (Ewing 2000). Committee meetings and consultations began between the San Jose-based Center for Environmental and Natural Resource Law (CEDARENA) and other key individuals in the largest local town, Dominical. In these meetings, participants began to envision how to connect agriculture, tourism, and habitat protection and provide economic incentives for landowners to participate in CBPD (Stroud pers. comm.). In 1994, the Path of the Tapir program was created to coordinate these efforts and to consider the region's economic and conservation needs (Rodriguez 2000). Since that time, workshops, community meetings, and meetings with individual landowners have been held in collaboration with CEDARENA and the Association of Friends of Nature of the Central and South Pacific (ASANA) with the objective to share information with landowners and discuss how best to approach their economic and environmental concerns (Chacon pers. comm.).

Path of the Tapir is a local program being managed by local actors, although the program has received financial and technical support from national and international organizations. The Costa Rican office of The Nature Conservancy was hired specifically to conduct a rapid assessment for the program, and otherwise has not been involved in CBPD. The program has received funding support from the United Nations' Global Environment Facility. "At times the implementation has been very organized and coordinated, though rarely as an amalgam of all the groups" (Stroud pers. comm.). ASANA administers environmental education programs across the region. Landowners act individually and in small groups, and there is little ongoing coordination between communities in the region. As a whole, efforts to implement CBPD have been locally-administered, small-scale projects, which, with improved cooperation and communication, can serve as a model of regional collaboration.

The Nature Conservancy assessment contributed critical information for both evaluation and clarification of program strategy. In addition to identifying the biological, hydrological, and geological characteristics of the zone, the assessment identified local organizations and their focus of activities, and assessed local perceptions of conservation efforts within the zone (Rodriguez 2000). TNC surveys assessed the willingness of landowners to participate and reasons for participation and non-participation in conservation and sustainable land management practices (Rodriguez 2000). The overriding factor determining landowners' decisions to participate in CBPD is perceived economic benefit, while financial restrictions (e.g., liens on properties), titling discrepancies, and joint ownership prohibited involvement in some cases.

It is not clear how individual programs are being evaluated with respect to the overall Path of the Tapir program. Evaluation is critical for measuring progress toward established goals and objectives. The organizations or individuals that assume the responsibility for evaluation must have the trust and respect of program participants for their evaluations to bear legitimacy and not be viewed as politically motivated (Patton 1997). Although the program is just beginning, it is not clear how success will be measured, who will be responsible for measuring it, and what will happen once a corridor network is in place. Termination does not signal an end, but rather the closure of one chapter and the opening of another. It is essential that this transition from implementing corridors to monitoring and maintaining them be planned in a way that does not derail preceding initiatives. The lack of a transition plan for this natural progression in management objectives could ultimately prohibit CBPD from reaching long-term goals of sustainability.

The strategy selected for CBPD is similar to the landscape-level ecoregion strategy of TNC. The approach is decided first--in this case a network of forest corridors formed to connect two other protected area networks--followed by a survey of the biophysical and ecological characteristics of the region. Human influences on the landscape are considered in terms of impacts (e.g., roads, fence lines, field/forest boundaries) that isolate habitat fragments. It is only in the final stages, once specific regions have been targeted for conservation, when regional managers meet with local landowners to assess strategies for incorporating them into the process (Toomey pers. comm.). Given the authoritative nature of this style of decision process, CBPD managers must decide whether or not this is an appropriate strategy in terms of building local trust and confidence in the program. Without legitimate authority to do so, the imposition of a regional conservation plan on an area characterized by private land holdings at the least will garner distrust with some individual landowners, and at most could stimulate regional backlash against the program. Given the low individual awareness of CBPD as revealed in the rapid assessment, it is not clear that CBPD has a clearly designated authority (Rodriguez 2000).

Working land easements--legal land use restriction contracts that allow for specified resource management prescriptions such as timber extraction--and land trusts are examples of creative strategies for local consideration. One potentially successful program has been initiated between ASANA and the World Bank. In this scheme, landowners can receive payments for environmental services (e.g., watershed maintenance) in exchange for developing and implementing a clearly specified, formal land management plan for their property. These agreements are supported by legally-binding contracts. This model program is an example of how markets can be created to bring direct economic benefits to individual landowners in exchange for the local, national, and global ecosystem services they provide through conservation stewardship of their property. While initial results seem positive in terms of short-run participation and increased land values as a result of forest protection, the long-term benefits and stability of this program are uncertain.

Historical trends, conditioning factors, and projected future outcomes

One way CBPD managers might measure program success is to assess whether or not it meets the following broad tests (Clark 2002): Is the program ecologically sound? Is it socially and politically feasible? And, is the program morally just? If not, interventions will be met with resistance, thus inhibiting the decision process. Program leaders must work together with key participants to formulate legitimate decision-making strategies. Attention should be given to establishing criteria for evaluation, and should include mechanisms that assign and enforce accountability. Feedback mechanisms built into implementation and evaluation plans facilitate rapid and effective response to bottlenecks. Few of these processes are evident in the overall CBPD program. While there are many devoted and talented people working on this program, there do not appear to be any well-conceived, comprehensive, and coordinated strategies among participants to address the complex environmental and socio-economic problems of the region.

Instead, should current biophysical, socioeconomic, and organizational trends continue, there is potential for increased social tensions due to conflicting demands and expectations among participants. It is likely that continued independent actions, especially those that focus solely on economic growth (e.g., re-routing the Inter-American Highway through this zone, and the boom in commercial and residential development) or environmental restoration and conservation (e.g., private reserves), will soon lead to conflict between participant groups. Projects driven by sector-specific goals compete for funding and force participants to take sides in determining which projects are carried out at the expense of other interests. At this juncture, the leading organizations in CBPD need to help participants establish common goals and develop cohesive, interdisciplinary strategies to evaluate progress toward achieving those goals.

Recommendations

Based on its current status, there are a number of possible directions the program can take. Maintaining insufficient cooperation and coordination among participant groups will lead to weak institutional support for regional land management. A variation on this approach targets solutions that focus on imported financial and technicall resources (e.g., tourism development and niche-market monoculture plantations) such that individual projects and participants remain isolated. A third alternative targets investment in communication skills and building organizational capacity of key participants. With forums for public participation and the skills to promote constructive dialog, local institutions will be better prepared to address the complexity of this program and to adapt, based on what is learned along the way. The third option offers the greatest benefit to the most people over the longest period of time, and will contribute the most in terms of building a replicable prototype for the region.

Unlike laboratory or highly controlled field experimentation, prototyping involves the systematic observation of institutional practices rather than a list of specific, measurable variables, as a strategy to pretest multiple policy options (Lasswell 1971). Indicators that demonstrate trends and magnitudes are subordinated to qualitative and context-specific observations, such as the participants' perspectives and expectations, and do not readily support aggregated, normalized data analysis (Lasswell 1971). Prototypes are different from pilot studies--they rely on creativity, strategic self-observation, and adaptation based on insights gained through the learning process (Clark et al. 1995).

One strategy to draw attention to policy problems is to exploit crisis situations. The gap in institutional capacity in the Path of the Tapir case is widened by crisis situations involving local infrastructure and poverty. Using crises as case studies, it is possible to illustrate the local relationship between economics and environmental quality, and to develop new, creative solutions through measures that promote institutional cooperation. The process of sustainable development is stimulated by building capacity within local organizations. For example, with support from ASANA, a local school runs a management project for threatened sea turtles that addresses both conservation and economic objectives. Students learn social and technical skills they can take to other projects.

There is an immediate need to build social capital (e.g., skill, knowledge, culture, and organization) in the region. Training in social skills, such as decision process analysis and conflict resolution, is essential for creating the context for making sound decisions. The National Biodiversity Institute--INBio has successfully trained local "parataxonomists" who assist taxonomists in field collection and identification of Costa Rica's flora and fauna species (Allen 2001). Similarly, Global Environment Facility and other institutional investors should train "parasociologists" to support the management of local organizations and facilitate the decision-making process within CBPD. Investment in building the skills to explore and document previously unaddressed social structures reflects a process-oriented approach toward addressing complex, dynamic problems. Participants could design performance indicators to measure how this approach enhances skill, wealth, power, respect, well-being, and enlightenment in the overall system (Dobyns et al. 1971).

There is also urgent need for improving the regional infrastructure. This would bring development associations and municipal public works departments into the process to design bridges, roads, electrification projects, and new transportation networks in a way that meets the stated program goal of creating human settlements in harmony with nature (Ewing 2000). Interdisciplinary planning and an in-depth prior understanding of the perspectives of all participant groups will make significant contributions toward this goal. Evaluations comprised of a collection of disciplinary analyses typically fail to integrate the knowledge they generate into a contextually appropriate approach to identifying root problems and strategies to address these issues. "By addressing the biological and social science aspects of the recovery challenge separately (i.e. a multi-disciplinary approach), practitioners risk devising fragmented, possibly contradictory solutions" (Clark et al. 1999:101).

Professionally-led decision seminars and workshops that address communication and negotiation skills are possible forums to bring together regional planners and program leaders. Decision seminars build a core nucleus of people that work together over a number of years to explore the theoretical and practical processes of decision making (Lasswell 1971). Working groups can emerge from the seminar to focus on specific problems (Lasswell 1971). Traditionally, decision seminars are a formal academic process carded out in higher university, corporate, or government settings (Lasswell 1971), yet this concept could be strategically adapted to conform to the socio-cultural context of this region. Gathering leaders from the multiple institutions throughout the program area, this exercise would improve communication and decision making among local organizations, build trust and community, and is consistent with the spirit of education that Costa Ricans embrace in their culture. As Dobyns et al. (1971) demonstrated, prototyping includes measuring how an interdisciplinary planning approach enhances skill, wealth, power, respect, well-being, rectitude, and enlightenment in the overall system.

"Policy-oriented learning occurs as participants in the policy process pay attention to feedback from their own actions so that they will eventually be successful in reaching their goals" (Primm and Clark 1996:1042). This requires effective evaluation procedures, willingness for self-reflection, and management styles that encourage creativity and flexibility. Success in regional efforts to manage private lands for both biological conservation and socioeconomic purposes will depend on building leadership capacity, mutual respect and trust among participants, and a commonly accepted problem definition.

Investing in organizational capacity and improving the relationships and coordination between participants in CBPD has several benefits. First, this approach seeks to incorporate all points of view and facilitate constructive dialog, building trust and respect among participants. Second, this is a logical first step in the process of building local decision-making and management skills needed to develop and maintain long-term regional coordination. And third, improving communication skills helps participants identify creative opportunities where partnership is the most effective way to meet their own interests.

Conclusions

The goal of this analysis is to assist CBPD participants in understanding the processes of problem orientation, social context mapping, and decision making. The case study has revealed that the major barriers to successful implementation of the program have to do with policy problems and the decision-making process.

Ecological rehabilitation of degraded lands and the sustainable management of the region's natural resources are key components of the economic and social well-being of this region. However, implementing a successful project in this complex social setting requires more than simply providing a multi-disciplinary management plan.

Path of the Tapir has the potential to demonstrate what early investment in building social capital--negotiation and communication skills and organizational capacity--can achieve in terms of developing a successful prototype. In documenting how these investments improve decision making and ultimately affect program success, the prototype becomes a useful mechanism to transfer lessons across contexts (Dobyns et al. 1971). Investment that enhances local social capital rests at the heart of an integrated approach to conservation--this approach gives rise to the legitimacy needed to develop and implement a management plan. By focusing on alternatives that are ecologically sound, socially and politically feasible, and morally just, investors and program leaders have a much greater likelihood for successfully attaining both development and conservation goals (Brechin et al. 2002).

We desire a system in which organizations are working together toward common goals and addressing commonly perceived problems. In this system, individual organizations have the capacity to look clearly at problems and evaluate their actions in a larger context. Feedback mechanisms and well-defined performance indicators provide constructive information and are designed into the management system. An integrated, adaptive strategy will help CBPD succeed in securing habitat for endangered species and protecting water resources within the context of a sustainable socioeconomic system.

To serve as a prototype for the Mesoamerican Biological Corridor Initiative, the social context and decision-making processes within CBPD must be examined and described in a way that provides general lessons for other regions (Clark 1999). For example, lessons learned about how to implement and evaluate the program can be applied not only to other corridor projects involving private landowners, but also to cases involving national parks or marine sanctuaries. The comprehensiveness and interdisciplinary nature of the policy sciences framework allows us to move across scales and context in a holistic approach to natural resource management.

Acknowledgements

Steve Stroud, in San Jose--Dominical, introduced me to CBPD, and has provided rapid and insightful responses to my questions, facilitation of contacts with CBPD, and multiple reviews of this manuscript. Mario Fernandez generously shared his field research and survey database from the TNC rapid assessment. Professors Tim Clark and Garry Brewer have mentored me in understanding and applying the policy sciences framework, and provided critical reviews of manuscript drafts. My advisor, Professor Bill Burch, has given me tireless encouragement to pursue this work. Finally, I am grateful to Richard Reading and Richard Wallace for their editing skill and patience in the development of this manuscript.

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Quint Newcomer
Yale University School of Forestry and Environmental Studies,
210 Prospect Street, New Haven, CT 06511
[e-mail]