Partnerships in wetland restoration.

Americans have always had a sort of love-hate relationship with government. Their individualism and support for the values of private property conflict with the government's role as regulator and property owner. However, Americans also demand many goods and services the government provides and oppose any reduction in these benefits. This love-hate relationship can be seen in the issue of land ownership; should land be privately owned, or should government play a role in owning and managing land? If lands are to be put primarily in private hands, what role, if any, should government play in protecting public interests in land? (Cubbage, O'Laughlin & Bullock, 1993). The answers are ever changing and are dependent upon prevailing political thought, societal values, economics, and technological advances.

Soon after the birth of the Constitution, the United States opted for private ownership. Public lands existing at the nation's outset and those subsequently acquired through war, treaty, and purchase were made available for sale to anyone having the cash to pay for them. Additionally, thousands of acres were placed in the hands of veterans of the Revolutionary War and the War of 1812 in lieu of payment for their services. The goal of this land distribution was to produce revenue for the fledgling government (Robbing, 1962).

American values form the basis for decisions about resource policy. Historically, Americans have favored decisions that support individualism and private property rights (Cubbage et al., 1993). Public policy, therefore, led to programs to replace forests with farms, to overgraze prairies, and to drain wetlands, all in the name of progress and prosperity. Natural resources provided the basis for the economy; conversion of raw materials to useful products formed the basis for the creation of wealth. Not only did owners develop their lands through clearing, burning, or draining, they also utilized air and water as a means to rid themselves of unwanted substances. Natural landscapes were considered the abode of evil creatures, both human and otherwise. These landscapes were merely impediments to civilization and wealth.

This pro-development attitude was prevalent throughout most of the nineteenth century. The early twentieth century saw the creation of public land systems to preserve natural landscapes (national forests, parks, and refuges), but pro-development attitudes remain common today. For example, in the November 6, 1965, issue of The Saturday

Evening Post, author Robert Wernick (cited in Nash, 1967) offered a more contemporary, if not less sinister, view of natural landscapes, describing them as "precisely what man has been fighting against since he began his painful, awkward climb to civilization. It is the dark, the formless, the terrible, the old chaos which our fathers pushed back...It is held at bay by constant vigilance and when the vigilance slackens, it swoops down for melodramatic revenge," (p. 27).

The Wise Use Movement of today continues to press for private control of natural resources and the protection of private land rights. But, do landowners have the right to reduce benefits society receives from private lands? No area of contention is more acrid than that of wetlands.

Wetlands Ecosystems

At some point the philosophy of development comes face to face with ecological reality. It becomes readily apparent that over-utilization of resources is not a "free lunch." Instead, the negative impacts of development can be identified and measured. As an ecosystem becomes better understood, the values it provides to society can be identified and measured, as well. Such is the case of wetlands. Wetlands have historically been viewed as wasteland, supplying human needs only after being drained and converted for other uses. By 1990, more than one-half of the nation's wetlands in existence in the colonial period had been converted to uplands (Dahl, 1990). Even though the rate of conversion has slowed, losses continue to exceed gains (Dahl & Johnson, 1991).

The realization that wetlands contribute significantly to our nation's wellbeing has now been sufficiently documented. According to Wilen (1995), the benefits of wetlands include biochemical processes (nutrient cycling), wildlife habitat, a major role in several food chains, hydrological benefits (flood control), water quality, and socioeconomic benefits. The latter benefit may include significant amounts of outdoor recreation.

Unfortunately, according to Doppelt, Scurlock, Frissell & Karr (1993), anywhere from one-third to three-fourths of aquatic species nationwide are rare to extinct, and aquatic species are disappearing at a faster rate then terrestrial species. More than 70 percent of riparian vegetation has been lost or degraded. Congress reacted to the wetlands issue in 1986 with the passage of the Emergency Wetlands Resources Act. The law recognizes the role of wetlands as follows: Maintaining the quality of life through material contributions to our national economy, food supply, water supply and quality, flood control, and fish, wildlife, and plant resources, and thus to the health, safety, recreation, and economic well-being of all citizens (Wilen, 1993, p. 473)

The law requires that a national digital wetlands database be developed and the results periodically reported to Congress. Wetlands became an issue in the 1988 presidential election when candidate George Bush's "no-net-loss" promise was ultimately adopted as federal wetlands policy. President Bill Clinton pledged in 1993 to actually increase and improve wetlands (Wilen, 1993). Also in 1986, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service completed the North American Waterfowl Management Plan. The plan seeks federal, state, and local cooperation to save waterfowl habitat and to restore wetland acreage. Therefore, public policy in the mid-1980s supported restoration of wetlands, primarily to be completed within the public sector.

Restoring natural ecosystems is technologically feasible. In the general case, restoration is "the process of repairing damage caused by humans to the diversity and dynamics of indigenous ecosystems." The elements of the restoration include the following (Jackson, Lopouknine & Hillyard, 1995):

1. Judgment of need including assessment of damage and possibility of continued degradation;

2. Use of an ecological approach, restoring organisms and their interactions with each other and the physical environment;

3. Setting goals and measuring success; and

4. Considering limitations including how society values the ecosystem, the extent of social commitment, the specific ecological circumstances, and the quality of restorationists' judgments.

This final element includes the issue of funding. Does society have sufficient value for an ecosystem to purchase and restore private wetlands and restore others in public ownership, and do they have sufficient commitment to pay a price that may be extremely significant?

Wetlands restoration is feasible. It may include restoring the hydrologic system, improving wildlife habitats, treating highly erodible soils, and restoring forests and other plant communities. More extensive restoration is usually desirable. Small-scale restoration may provide improved wildlife habitat but provides little or no value in terms of recreation, water quality, flood control, and primary productivity (Charland, 1996).

Creating social commitment and funding support may be enhanced by the creation of partnerships. A partner may be able to provide land, funding, staff, facilities, or programming. In times of budgetary stress, partnerships may be the vehicle to make restoration feasible.

The following case study assesses a partnership designed to restore an endangered wetlands ecosystem in southern Illinois, with additional objectives of providing significant recreation opportunity while helping to improve the economic and social conditions of the region. The analysis describes the setting and the individual partners. The outcomes of the establishment of the partnership with respect to recreation and regional development are also provided.

Cache River Basin -- A Case Study

The Cache River Basin is one of Illinois' most unique areas. The Cache has long been influenced by its larger neighbors, the Ohio and Mississippi rivers (Fig. 1). The valley is characterized by diverse flora and fauna. The Lower Cache supports a mixture of forests, grasslands, wetlands, lakes, and streams. Great forests of cypress and tupelo once covered thousands of acres; little remains. The Upper Cache Basin contains mesophytic forests in the uplands with oak and sweet gum along the river (Schwegman, 1991). The Cache watershed contains three national natural landmarks, eight Illinois nature preserves, and 60 sites that contain ecosystems of statewide significance (Illinois Department of Natural Resources, 1997). In 1995, the Cache was listed as a Ramsar Convention Site, making it a "Wetland of International Importance," (Harris, 1996).

[Figure 1 ILLUSTRATION OMITTED]

Historically, fauna included such species as buffalo, elk, bear, and wolf -- now all extirpated. Smaller mammals remain in abundance today. Waterfowl were attracted to the vast wetlands; the oak woodlands produced mast to sup port huge flocks of passenger pigeons (Schwegman, 1991). Bird life today is still remarkable (Ambrose, 1994).

European settlers began entering the area in the early eighteenth century. During the American Revolution the rate of settlement increased. Timber harvest was the primary economic activity of the nineteenth century, though market hunting became important in the last decades of that century.

Drainage of the Cache Basin for agriculture was suggested in the 1870s, but it was not until 1916 that the Post Creek Cutoff was completed (Fig. 1). The Cutoff provided a shortcut to the Ohio for the flow of the Upper Cache, and due to its steeper gradient some of the Lower Cache also drained to the upstream direction by means of the Cutoff. Drainage efforts continued well into the 1960s (Schwegman, 1991).

The diversion of the river via the Post Creek Cutoff began to take its toll. The Lower Cache was characterized mostly by periods of little or no flow, resulting in extensive siltation.

Depending on the relative stages of the Mississippi and the Ohio, the Lower Cache could flow in either direction, if at all.

The Upper Cache was affected by the steeper gradient of the Cutoff. Gullies increased and, as they worked their way upstream, drained whatever wetlands were in their path. Substantial wetland acreage was lost (Schwegman, 1991; Harris, Horrell & Irwin, 1977).

Restoration of the Cache River

By the 1970s, the wetlands of the Cache Basin had been severely impacted. But a few of the magnificent cypress stands still remained, some with individual trees estimated to be more than 1,000 years old. Other significant ecological remnants of the forest, wetland, and prairie were scattered throughout the basin.

Initial efforts for the preservation of the Upper Cache began under authority of the Illinois Nature Preserves Commission Act of 1963. In March 1969, the first acreage was purchased: ultimately, 1,123 acres were acquired as the Heron Pond Wildcat Bluff Nature Preserve, managed by the Illinois Department of Conservation (now the Illinois Department of Natural Resources). This area has become an integral Dart of the partnership (Illinois Department of Conservation 1991).

The Lower Cache, however, continued to decline ecologically. Drainage activities created even more agricultural land, and wetland acreage decreased. These activities caused the loss of opportunity for hunting and fishing along the Cache. In 1978, a group of sportsmen responded by founding the Citizen's Committee to Save the Cache River, with the objective of coalescing support of federal, state, and local governments along with private organizations. The committee realized that overcoming agricultural and developmental interests would be impossible without cooperation (Schwegman, 1991).

The Illinois Department of Natural Resources and The Nature Conservancy (TNC) were instrumental in the preservation of the Lower Cache. The Department of Natural Resources acquired land in the Lower Cache by exchange and eminent domain and became a part of the state's Interagency Committee on the Cache River. The committee, in conjunction with several federal agencies, funded studies that assessed the feasibility of restoration of the Cache (Schwegman, 1991).

The Nature Conservancy had been active in the Cache Basin for decades, supporting the creation of nature preserves. Later, TNC helped in fundraising for state purchases. Finally, in the 1980s, it began purchasing land in the basin and has continued to do so to date (Schwegman, 1991).

As a part of the plan, the Illinois Department of Conservation recommended that a national wildlife refuge be created in the Cache Basin. Future partners Ducks Unlimited and The Nature Conservancy strongly supported the proposal. In 1990, Cypress Creek National Wildlife Refuge was authorized in the Cache Basin. The refuge will ultimately consist of 35,320 acres and will be a focal point of wetland-restoration efforts in the Cache Basin (Schwegman, 1991; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1990).

The Partnership

Cypress Creek National Wildlife Refuge (named for a major tributary of the Cache that was replaced by a ditch) was created to protect waterfowl. Specifically, the objectives of the refuge are as follows (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1990):

1. Protect, restore, and manage bottomland hardwood forests and wetlands in support of the North American Waterfowl Management Plan;

2. Provide resting, feeding, nesting, and wintering habitat for waterfowl and other birds; and

3. Protect endangered and threatened species and their habitats.

The refuge was established for waterfowl; facilities for recreation will not be provided by the Fish and Wildlife Service. The legislation creating the refuge did, however, authorize an environmental education interpretive center.

In order to achieve the objectives of recreation development and regional economic enhancement, a partnership was formed. Most of the public and private entities involved in preserving the Cache are involved with this partnership, which is known as the Joint Venture Cache River Wetlands Project. Ultimately, it will include 60,000 acres of cypress wetland, along with upland and bottomland forests and grasslands (Ambrose, 1994). Brief descriptions of the partners follow:

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service -- The Fish and Wildlife Service will ultimately own 35,320 acres, managed primarily for waterfowl habitat. Of that total, 12,877 acres will be wetlands. The remainder will be upland hardwood acres to be restored through hardwood plantings.

Illinois Department of Natural Resources -- In January 1990, the state of illinois established the Cache River State Natural Area, encompassing the Heron Pond-Wildcat Bluff areas as well as the state's holdings in the Lower Cache. These areas include 8,214 acres to be managed for habitat protection as well as quality recreation opportunity. Facilities include hiking and canoe trails, picnic areas, and visitor access.

The Nature Conservancy -- The Nature Conservancy has a goal of protection and preservation of the Cache. It already owns 4,000 acres and continues to acquire more, some of which will become part of the federal refuge or the state natural area. TNC also is active in reforestation, working with scouts and other groups in the collection of acorns and hickory nuts for planting. Finally, TNC has opened all of its land to public use.

Ducks Unlimited -- Ducks Unlimited has acquired about 1,100 acres. It will assist in additional acquisitions as well as the construction of water-retention structures.

Citizen's Committee to Save the Cache River -- The original Citizen's Committee to Save the Cache River continues to support management of the Cache. Its original goals met, the committee continues to provide financial and political support. Most recently it provided the materials to the state for construction of a canoe trail, parking area, and interpretive signs in the Lower Cache.

The long-term efforts of public and private partners were successful in the preservation of a significant wetland ecosystem. Many of the same partners are now instrumental in the continuing restoration of the Cache wetlands as well as in making them available for public use and improving the social and economic situation of residents of the Basin. Projections as to the success of these efforts are described below.

The Partnership -- An Analysis

To assess how the creation of Cypress Creek National Wildlife Refuge and its associated partners will affect the surrounding region, an analysis was conducted by researchers at Southern Illinois University. A preliminary analysis was conducted by Beck, Burde, Davie, Gates, Hollenhorst, Kraft, Sharpe, Wagner & Woolf (1990) using IMPLAN, an input-output model that considers all aspects of the economy (Univ. of Minnesota, 1990).

The analysis was repeated after refuge establishment, but with the addition of an outdoor recreation component (Beck et al., 1993). The outcomes of these analyses are summarized below.

Beck et al. (1990) focused on the agricultural sector of the Cache, assessing the alternatives proposed in legislation creating the refuge. The area of analysis included the five counties containing the Cache watershed. It was clear that refuge establishment would reduce agricultural production -- up to $2.2 million annually, as determined by IMPLAN. Also, the model predicted that there could be a loss of up to 89 jobs in agriculture and related industries.

Regional Outdoor-Recreation Analysis

No systematic analysis of outdoor recreation within the region had ever been conducted. To predict recreation use, existing federal and state data was used to infer future use. State needs assessments suggest that the region lacks trails and lodging facilities (Illinois Department of Conservation). Use data was also inferred from existing data sources (USDA Forest Service, 1992; Whitton, 1992a; Whitton, 1992b; Illinois Department of Conservation, 1989). Total recreation use was estimated at 1.6 million visitor-days within the region in 1991. Use was projected to increase to 2.1 million visitor-days by 2006 (Beck et al., 1993). This data was used as input into IMPLAN.

Because no data was available for some activities, original data was collected. Ralston (1993) surveyed all registered canoeists in Illinois to project potential canoe use in the Cache Basin. Only eight percent of Illinois canoeists typically canoe in wetlands; only onehalf of those had ever visited the Cache. However, more than 75 percent of respondents said they had an interest in canoeing wetlands.

When asked how far a canoeist would be willing to travel to canoe the Cache, nearly 80 percent stated they would travel no more than 200 miles. Essentially, the distance to all the large cities in Illinois exceeds 200 miles. Without marketing efforts, canoe use will occur elsewhere.

IMPLAN Projections

The results of the IMPLAN analysis show that the establishment of the refuge will result in a modest increase in economic activity and employment. After five years, the refuge will generate $500,000, increasing to more than $2.5 million in its 15th year (Table 1). Most of the projected increase is because of tourism generated by the refuge and its new interpretive/nature center, but construction of the center may be several years in the future. Employment is projected to respond similarly Employment gains will be slight through the 10th year, 20 additional jobs in the fifth year, and 37 in year 10. The growth is projected to increase faster by the 15th year, providing 96 new jobs. In sum, creation of the partnership has set in motion a process that will result in the restoration of a significant wetland resource providing quality habitat for a wide variety of wildlife, especially waterfowl. Recreation opportunities will be enhanced, and the local economy will benefit with a net increase in earnings and employment. While the objectives of the refuge itself may be met without partners, the recreation and economic benefits certainly would not. The Cache River partnership demonstrates to others the ecological, economic, and social benefits of partnerships and suggests to others that preservation need not be an economic burden to a local economy.

TABLE 1. ECONOMIC CHANGE -- IMPLAN MODEL

                   Year After      Change in Economic
Sector            Establishment   Activity ($ million)

Agriculture              5               $1.777

Recreation               5                0.683

Visitor Center           5                1.607
(operations and
maintenance)

TOTAL                    5                0.513

TOTAL                   10                0.770

TOTAL                   15                2.565

A Look at the Future

Though the Cache partnership has been successful to date, one facet is currently lacking, leaving the future open to question. As noted above, the region lacks trails and lodging facilities (Illinois Department of Conservation). The partnership has or will provide excellent hiking opportunities. But at present, lodging facilities are still lacking.

Because of declining regional populations, economic activity spurred by tourism must attract travelers from afar. Currently an infrastructure for tourism is lacking within the region. An informal survey showed that campgrounds, motels, and restaurants can be found only on the fringes of the watershed, with few near the river itself. Owing to agency policies and lack of funding, none of the existing public-sector partners have current programs to create additional lodging. The private sector may be the answer, but to date, no tourism development has begun.

The region is well served by two interstate highways and secondary highways. However, a prospective tourist would find it difficult to spend more than a few hours in the region due to lack of nearby lodging or food service. Will entrepreneurs invest in such developments to take advantage of potential tourism, or will development occur only when tourism is established? If the latter happens, can tourism become established without further development of infrastructure? No answer is currently available to this question.

Conclusions

Restoration of the Cache followed the elements suggested by Jackson et al. (1995). The amount and distribution of human-caused damage was identified; the likelihood of continued degradation was apparent. An ecological approach is being utilized in wetland restoration, and a management plan for the area identified goals and objectives. Finally, the limitations of restoration were overcome. Restoration of the Cache continues.

What does the situation on the Cache say to others considering restoring wetlands? Those contemplating restoration should consider the following:

1. Restoring wetlands is technically feasible, but probably is financially feasible only in the public sector. Justifying the need for restoration is critical, especially in creating public support for funding to acquire private land and for development.

2. When all aspects of a regional economy are examined, the impacts of wetland restoration are small. Some losses in agricultural employment will likely result from restoration since, in most cases, lands restored to wetlands will be former agricultural land.

3. Many of the benefits of wetland restoration are difficult to measure and even more difficult to be valued. The improvement of wildlife habitat, the improvement of water quality, and the creation of aesthetics are real benefits, but their inclusion in economic analysis is problematic.

4. Recreation benefits will vary depending upon the level of proposed development. In the case reported here, there will be little recreational development, so improvements in the regional economy based on recreation will be modest.

5. The Importance of contributions from the private sector cannot be under estimated. Anyone considering restoring wetlands should seek support among individuals and organizations in the private sector, especially among sportsmen's groups. This support may be financial as well as political and social.

6. Partnerships improve the feasibility of restoration. Wetland restoration may be too expensive for a single unit of government. But the public and private sectors, working together, can accomplish so much more.

The technology to save and enhance portions of our nation's natural heritage has been developed. To be successful, widespread support is necessary, especially from the private sector. Developing partnerships offers a means to combine public and private contributions to reach a common goal.

References

Ambrose, D. (1994). Undiscovered country. Outdoor Highlights, 22(6), 10-13.

Beck, R.J., Harris, K.S., Kraft, S.E., & Wagner, M.J. (1990). Potential economic impacts of the proposed Cypress Creek National Wildlife Refuge. Appendix M in: Cypress Creek National Wildlife Refuge: Environmental Assessment. Fort Snelling, MN: U.S Department of Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service.

Beck, R.J., Burde, J.H., Davie, K., Gates, R., Hollenhorst, T., Kraft, S.E., Sharpe, D., Wagner, M.J., & Woolf, A. (1993). Ecological-economic modeling in the Cache River Basin: the challenge of ecological-economic modeling on a watershed basis. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University

Charland, J.W. (1996). The "problem-isolation paradigm" in natural resource management. Journal of Forestry, 94(5), 6-9.

Cubbage, F.W., O'Laughlin, J., & Bullock 111, C.S. (1993). Forest resource policy. New York: Wiley and Sons.

Dahl, T.E. (1990). Wetland losses in the United States: 1780s to 1980s. Washington, USDI Fish and Wildlife Service.

Dahl, T.E., & Johnson, C.F. (1991). Status and trends of wetlands in the coterminous United States: mid-1970s to mid-1980s. Washington, USDI Fish and Wildlife Service.

Doppelt, R., Scurlock, M., Frissell, C., & Karr, J. (1993). Entering the watershed. Washington: Island Press.

Harris, K. (1996). Emerald kingdom. Outdoor Illinois, 4(5), 2-6.

Harris, S.E., Horrell, C.W., & Irwin, D. (1977). Exploring the land and rocks of southern Illinois. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press.

Illinois Dept. of Conservation. (n.d.). Outdoor recreation: local needs. Springfield, IL: IL Dept. of Conservation, Div. of Planning.

Illinois Dept. of Conservation. (1989). Illinois outdoor recreation: 1989 survey. Springfield, IL: IL Dept. of Conservation, Division of Planning.

Illinois Department of Conservation. (1991). Open spaces. . . family places. Springfield, IL: IL Dept. of Conservation.

Illinois Department of Natural Resources. (1997). The Cache River Basin - an inventory of the region's resources. Springfield, IL: IL Dept. of Natural Resources.

Jackson, L.L., Lopoukhine N., & Hillyard, D. (1995). Ecological restoration: a definition and comments. Restoration Ecology, 3(2), 71-75.

Nash, R. (1967). Wilderness and the American mind. New Haven: Yale U. Press.

Ralston, D.M. (1993). Registered canoeists of Illinois: their preferences, behaviors, and expenditures. Unpublished master's thesis. Southern Illinois University, Carbondale.

Robbins, R.M. (1962). Our landed heritage - the Public Domain 1776-1936. Lincoln, NE: Univ. Of Nebraska Press.

Schwegman, J. (1991). Saving the Cache. Outdoor Highlights, 19(9), 3-11.

USDA Forest Service. (1992). Report of the Forest Service - FY 1992. Washington: U.S. Forest Service.

USDI Fish and Wildlife Service. (1990). Cypress Creek National Wildlife Refuge Environmental Assessment. Fort Snelling, MN: US Fish and Wildlife Service, Region III.

University of Minnesota. (1990). MICRO IMPLAN Users Manual. St. Paul: Dept. of Agricultural and Applied Economics.

Whitton, R.M. (1992a). Canada goose harvest and hunter activity in the southern Illinois Quota Zone during the 1991 season. Springfield, IL: IL Dept. of Conservation, Div. of Wildlife Resources.

Whitton, R.M. (1992b). A five-year comparison of hunter use and harvest on public waterfowl areas in Illinois 1984-1988. Springfield, IL: IL Dept. of Conservation, Div. of Wildlife Resources.

Wilen, W.O. (1995). The nation's wetlands. In: Our Living Resources, Washington, National Biological Survey.

RELATED ARTICLE: Research Into Action: Wetland Restoration Research

Introduction

Wetlands have been under severe depletion since early pioneer days. Less than onehalf of the original wetlands in this country remains. Research has documented the ecological value of wetlands, and Congress passed the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resource Act in response to the concerns over the depletion of these areas. Today, the restoration of natural ecosystems is technologically feasible. Funding and value are key elements in this process, the key question revolving around the valuing of wetland resources by the public and a willingness on their part to spend government funds for their restoration.

Impact of this research

The Cache River Basin case study provides some interesting and useful insights into how wetland restoration research is being applied. The depletion of wetlands from the Cache River Basin followed a pattern similar to other wetland areas in this country, with projects put in place to replace these areas with farmland. Initial restoration efforts came from the state through the purchase of lands for preservation purposes. Lower areas of the river basin continued to deteriorate until private groups urged cooperation and action. The Illinois Department of Natural Resources (DNR) and The Nature Conservancy (TNC) acted together with several federal agencies to put plans in place for restoration of the lower river basin. Fundraising efforts and other land-acquisition efforts were led by TNC, but ultimately it was suggested by the Illinois Department of Conservation that a national wildlife refuge be created. The Joint Ventures Cache River Project involved partnering by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Illinois Department of Natural Resources, The Nature Conservancy, Ducks Unlimited, and the Citizen's Committee to Save the Cache River.

A computer-generated economic impact model (IMPLAN) was used to assess the effect of the wildlife refuge. The refuge was predicted to reduce agricultural income by $2.2 million and cost 89 agricultural jobs, with a recreation increase in the area growing from $500,000 five years into the establishment of the refuge to $2.5 million 15 years into the project. Most of this would come from tourism. Tourism infrastructure presents a unique problem not addressed by the agencies involved in creating the refuge. The economic impacts of refuge establishment must be weighed along with the ecological and social impacts. Each plays an important and related role.

How to use this research

* Knowing how other areas have dealt with the issue of wetland restoration provides a model for states to look at partnerships for both small and large restoration projects.

* Securing the involvement of public support groups is a key element in developing constituent support.

* The presence of existing case studies allows organizations to identify possible scenarios for wetland restoration and increases the range of available alternatives.

* The knowledge of successful restoration projects can become a valuable influencer when working with constituent populations -- groups who can either help or resist the process.

* Measuring recreation benefits before and after the restoration process can help convince people of the economic and social benefits of such projects.

For more information

USDI Fish and Wildlife Service. (1990) Cypress Creek National Wildlife Refuge Environmental Assessment Fort Snelling, MN: US Fish and Wildlife Service, Region III.

Research Into Action is published monthly by the Society of Park and Recreation Educators, National Recreation and Park Association. As an accompaniment to "Research Update," Its goal is to turn research findings into field action by highlighting management strategies. Founding editors are Dr. Ruth Rusell and Dr. Daniel D. McLean, Department of Recreation and Park Administration, Indiana University.

Dr. John Burde is a professor in the Department of Forestry, Dr. Stephen Kraft is a professor in the Department of Agribusiness Economics, and Dr. Roger Beck is an associate professor in the Department of Agribusiness Economics, all at Southern Illinois University at Carbondale.

Research Update is edited by Dr. Irma O'Dell of Southern Illinois University at Carbondale.