Parallel scheduling, transforming performance.

Abstract

Parallel block scheduling is a method employed in elementary schools to help reduce the student-to-teacher ratio in core academic areas such as reading and mathematics. Students are constantly moving in and out of the classroom while missing crucial instruction during this transition. Parallel block scheduling alleviates this problem and may allow for the flexibility for a school to move from a traditional to a transformational school. Benefits to schools of parallel block scheduling may be dramatic especially for the lowest achieving students.

Introduction

Research has indicated positive results can be associated with flexible parallel block scheduling in elementary schools. Reducing class size, reducing the interrupted instructional day for students and teachers, and individualizing instruction for students are all benefits of parallel scheduling. Student achievement has been directly linked to the reduction in class size from several research studies. Having fifteen or less students with one teacher for core subjects, such as reading and math, can improve achievement of all students; however research has indicated the most dramatic improvement is among the lowest achieving. Disruptive behavior is reduced because there is not "meaningless seatwork" while the teacher is working with individual or small groups of students (Delaney, Toburen, Hooten & Dozier, 1998). Planning and researching parallel block scheduling prior to implementation is crucial for the success of the schedule. The transformational principal must take an active role in building a flexible model which responds to the changing needs of an achieving student population. The principal's role in monitoring strategies, methodologies, resources, and engagement will have a positive impact on student achievement.

Over time, many new programs have been implemented in elementary school to use resources more appropriately to meet the diverse needs of the students being served. Programs such as the Exceptional Children, Academically Intellectually Gifted, English Language Learners, and Title 1 programs are apparent in most schools across the country, along with during school tutoring sessions, for students who are at risk for failing academically. Children can be a part of many of these programs during the same day. Canady and Hotchkiss (1985) examined constant movement of students in and out of classrooms. They found this constant movement is a major problem with instruction and a detriment to the utilization of the schools most precious resource.

In 1994 the National Educational Commission on Time and Learning prepared a document entitled The Prisoners of Time. This document looked at problems that are occurring in schools due to the allotment of instructional time during the school day and year. School administrators still face concerns with effective time utilization. Teachers comment anecdotally that, "there just isn't enough time" when questioned about standards and accountability measures. Teachers need to feel control and efficacy. Leadership's part of giving this feeling of control and efficacy back to teachers could be accomplished through time management. Scheduling wears a number of faces in schools and has for years. We are not attempting to review all the mechanisms of scheduling. However we are proposing that a refreshing view of parallel scheduling may solve some time management problems, empower teachers, aid collaborative thinking, and reward reflective practice (Queen, White, & Watson, in press). Parallel block scheduling is one method that schools can implement to help reduce the number of interruptions during classroom instruction, simultaneously reducing the number of student per teacher ratio during key content areas of math and reading. Canady and Hotchkiss (1985) described block scheduling as a way to provide high impact instruction, especially to low achieving students, during each moment of the school day where time is focused on quality teaching and student learning.

Reducing Class Size

The overall premise of parallel block scheduling is to heterogeneously group students into homerooms where large group instruction occurs while homogeneously grouping students into small groups of fifteen or less for reading and math instruction. These two smaller groups are scheduled parallel to each other in order for students to receive the benefits of both types of instruction. Extension centers exist where large numbers of heterogeneous groups of students receive extended and enriched activities focusing on different areas of the curriculum. All "pull outs" are done during this extension time, allowing students to receive the individualized instruction necessary, while at the same time not missing instruction from their classroom teacher (Canady, 1988). The smaller homogeneously grouped students benefit from smaller class size and individualized instruction. Teachers are able to focus attention directly on the small group without having to monitor meaningless seatwork and behavior issues that tend to occur with such practices (Delaney, Toburen, Hooten, & Dozier, 1998). Canady (1988) also found that during these smaller groups of direct instruction, students tend to feel less intimidated when they may be performing below their peers.

Keeping the students involved and on-task is a tremendous benefit of parallel block scheduling. Smaller class size in the content area groups are key to keeping students focused and learning. There has been a considerable amount of research completed on the effects of smaller class size and student success. Achilles (1997) examined the benefits on class size with 15 students to one teacher compared to classes with 22 or more students to one teacher. The results were overwhelming positive for the smaller classes of 15 or less students. Based on the information Achillies collected, there are four affirmative outcomes due to the smaller class make-up. The students in classes with 15 or less students,

* Obtained higher test scores

* participated more in school

* demonstrated improved behavior

* and retained many benefits of early class-size reductions in their later years of

* schooling (p. 7).

Achilles (1997) affirmed these results through a study which examined the effects of fourth graders in smaller classes out performing their peers in larger classes by approximately half a school year. Achilles also found that teachers working with smaller groups of students tend to spend more individualized instructional time with each student (1997). Leithwood, Anderson, and Wahlstrom(2004) reviewed a study that suggests by reducing class size within the first two years of a child's education along with adjusting the instructional techniques used by teachers for the smaller classes will benefit students' tremendously. The benefits have continued for up to three to four years after students have been in smaller classes (Leithwood, Louis, Anderson & Wahlstom, 2004). Parallel scheduling is a time management approach that can have dramatic implications for student achievement in the elementary schools if done correctly (Ricken, Terc, & Ayres, 2001). J.A. Queen (2003) compiled six benefits of parallel block scheduling which are:

* Reducing class size

* Less dependency on stringent ability grouping 

* Integration of support services 

* Efficient staffing

* High rates of students on task

* Increased test scores

Leithwood, Louis, Anderson, and Wahlstrom examined research that suggested student achievement is directly linked to issues such as class size, instructional practices of the teacher, grouping of students, as well as monitoring progress of the students (2004). The researchers also found that the greatest benefit of class reduction is for the sociallyeconomically disadvantaged students (Leithwood, Louis, Anderson & Wahlstrom, 2004). Canady and Hotchkiss found similar results that confirm the smaller class size of parallel block scheduling, when correlated with support services such as Title 1, positively impact lower achieving students (1985). Analyzing another study, Canady and Hotchkiss (1985) concluded that as the class size decreases student achievement increases.

Planning and Researching

Research indicates that these six benefits of parallel block also impact the transactional learning dimensions thereby adding teachers with sustained instructional support, staff that are focused and productive, a method to focus on instructional needs, and serve as way to monitor instructional activities. The literature indicates that parallel block may provide the time platform for schools to become transactional or transformational. Canady and Rettig (2001) found that parallel block scheduling increased quality instructional time, reduced the size of instructional groups, and provided opportunities for extended learning and enrichment time. These researchers also found that elementary school principals must address three major issues related to scheduling in order for successful implementation of parallel scheduling to occur,

* Quality time must be provided for teaching and learning to occur

* Size of classes

* Individualized instruction for students who learn at different rates (Canady & Rettig, 2001).

Canady and Hotchkiss found further research that suggests individual teachers vary greatly in the amount of instructional time allotted for the various subjects taught (1985). one study examined by Canady and Hotchkiss found one fifth grade teacher allowed 68 minutes a day for reading while another fifth grade teacher used 137 minutes a day (1985). The same results were presented when looking at two second grade teachers, while one using 47 minutes on reading and language arts while another using 118 minutes per day (Canady and Hotchkiss, 1985). Canady and Hotchkiss (1985) examined another study which resulted, on average, elementary teachers spending significantly less time instructing lower reading groups compared to higher reading groups.

Reducing the number of "pull outs" in a school day is another benefit of parallel scheduling. Defragmenting the instructional time for students is crucial in improving student achievement. Canady and Rettig found that most elementary schools "pull outs" were scheduled based on the needs of the instructors not the students (2001). Most elementary school schedules are extremely fragmented, causing numerous students to miss key instruction throughout the day. Principals should make sure the appropriate use of flexible parallel block scheduling for students needs and not just for the convenience of the instructors. Scheduling should allow students to receive enriching or remedial services without missing key instruction with the classroom teacher. This process provides the students more time to fully comprehend the material being presented (Canady & Rettig, 2001). Students are not viewed any different by their peers when it is time to go to their assigned "pull out" because the majority of the students are moving to either the extension center or to small group instruction for reading or math (Canady, 1988). Students as well as teachers benefit greatly from parallel block scheduling. Reducing the number of "pull outs" that interrupt the instructional day for teachers, in addition to students missing important information presented in the classroom while going to such "pull outs", is an essential part of parallel scheduling. Smaller instructional groups for the core subjects of reading and math, help students receive more individualized instruction.

Parallel block scheduling aids in producing high student achievement when the program is implemented carefully, with much time taken to schedule students appropriately, so that individual needs are being met. Most elementary schools following the parallel block schedule only block for reading and/or math. It is the opinion of this researcher that future studies in the subject area of science, and a focus of subject integration, would be beneficial to examine. Heterogeneous based groups would also be an excellent suggestion to examine for the implication in student achievement. If heterogeneous small group instruction resulted in the same benefits that the homogenous parallel base groups demonstrated through the research presented in this study, it is the opinion of this researcher that heterogeneous grouping would allow for more flexibility and be the preferred method for parallel block scheduling.

Role of the Principal

The principal's role is to positively impact student achievement through effective leadership. The literature indicates that principals possibly have the most impact on instruction by focusing the direction of the school, improving the personnel in the school and finally by changing the organization (Waters, Marzano, and McNulty, 2003). The principal carries an important function in all three of these areas when promoting the focus, utilization, and assessment of the use of time. These functions on the use of time can be furthered through the consideration of parallel block scheduling. The leadership behavior of the principal is pivotal in the success of the school and of a parallel scheduling format may enhance leadership results if implemented appropriately. Marzano, Waiters, and McNulty (2005) examined behaviors of principals and how such behaviors affected student achievement in the book School Leadership that Works. The authors found, on average, a l0 percent increase in student achievement when the principal implemented effective leadership behavior in schools (Marzano, Waiters & McNulty, 2005). The authors also reviewed a model of transformational leadership by Kenneth Leithwood that presented skills an effective school leader must possesses to combat effective change in the schools. The findings are:

* pay particular attention to individual needs of staff members

* guide staff members to be creative problem solvers

* maintain high expectations for teachers and students

* be role model for staff (Marzano, Walters & McNulty, 2005)

A successful administrator is aware of the needs of his or her school and students they serve. Using the findings presented by Marzano, Walters, and McNulty, the school administrator can work with staff, parents and students to help prepare the school for parallel block scheduling.. The effective school leader creates a relationship with each of the faculty members. Establishing these relationships helps create a warm, inviting environment in which staff and students feel respected and valued. Creating an environment of respect and value raises the level of school efficacy and in turn impacts student achievement. The process of creating or maintaining a transactional environment or a transformational environment is at least partially dependent upon the utilization of resources in the school community (Queen, White, & Watson, in press). Certainly the most valuable resource to manipulate regarding establishing a collaborative, reflective and democratic climate is time. J. A. Queen (2000) provided a list of requirements that principal's should do in order to support this resource via a successful implementation of a parallel block schedule.

* Provide initial and continuing staff development for all teachers throughout the year on the topics of curriculum and instructional alignment, instructional pacing and strategies, and time management.

* Must develop a monitoring team to verify that all teachers are using pacing guides and various instructional strategies effectively.

* Must take appropriate disciplinary action with teachers who are unwilling to follow the basic principals, and procedures necessary in block schedule (p. 221-222).

Combining Leithwoods' model summarized by Marzano, Waiters, and McNulty (2005), and Queen's 2000 recommendations for principals should help create school models for learning. School principals not only allow this transformation into a learning community they enable it by meeting staff and student needs leading to greater student achievement. The successful principal will monitor the progress of parallel scheduling, and the direct impact on student achievement. A transformed principal in a flexible scheduling environment will be visible, encouraging, and open to suggestions that will improve the impact on student attainment.

Conclusion

Reduction in class size and increased flexibility, will permit teachers to individualize (personalize) and focus on instructional activities resulting in increased student achievement. A climate of achievement and success is the result of collaborative response of staff and an individual response of students. While a climate for success is dependent upon the response of staff and students, the responsibility of guiding these responses rest solidly on the shoulders of the principal. Implementing parallel block scheduling flexibly through consensus manipulation of time combined with appropriate methodology improves flexibility, reduces class size and permits for focused individualization. Even with block scheduling the learning community needs to continue to seek other ways of maximizing flexibility, individualization and focus while promoting a collaborative, more democratic process.

References

Achilles, C. M. (1997). Small classes, big possibilities. School Administrator, 54(9), 6-9,12,13,15.

Canady, R. L. (1988). A cure for fragmented schedules in elementary schools. Educational Leadership, 46(2), 65-67.

Canady, R. L., & Hotchkiss, P. R. (1985). Scheduling practices and policies associated with increased achievement for low achieving students. Journal of Negro Education, 54(3), 344-355.

Canady, R. L., & Rettig, M. D. (2001). Block scheduling: The key to quality learning time. Principal, 80(3), 30-34.

Delany, M., Toburen, L., Hooton, B., & Dozier, A. (1998). Parallel block scheduling spells success. Educational Leadership, 55(4), 61-63.

Leithwood, K., Louis, K.S., Anderson, S., & Wahlstrom, K. (2004). Learning from leadership project: How leadership influences student learning. New York, NY: The Wallace Foundation.

Marzano, R. J., Waiters, T., & McNulty, B.A. (2005). School leadership that works: From research to results. Aurora, Co: Mid-Continent Research of Education and Learning.

National Education Commission on Time and Learning, Washington, DC. (1994). Prisoners of time. U.S.; District of Columbia: Superintendent of Documents.

Queen, J. A. (2000). Block scheduling revisited. Phi Delta Kappan, 82(3), 214-20,221-22.

Queen, J. A. (2003). The block scheduling handbook. Thousand oaks, CA: Corwin Press, Inc.

Queen, White, & Watson (in press). From Block Scheduling to Flexible Scheduling in Seven Steps. Corwin Press.

Ricken, R., Terc, M., & Ayres, I. (2001). The elementary school principal's calendar: A monthby-month planner for the school year. Thousand oaks, CA: Corwin Press, Inc.

Waters, T., Marzano, R., and McNulty, B. (2003). Balanced Leadership: What 30 years of research tells us about the effect of leadership on student achievement. McREL.

Tonya Williams, The University of North Carolina at Charlotte, NC

Wayne White, The University of North Carolina at Charlotte, NC

Tonya Williams is a North Carolina Principal Fellow currently enrolled in the MSA program, and Wayne White, EdD., is a member of the Educational Leadership faculty of UNC-Charlotte.