On diachronic origins of converbs in Maithili.

Introduction

The converb (also termed 'absolutive', 'purvakalika kriya', and 'conjunctive participle') is one of the characteristic devices to linking sequences of clauses to the host clause in Maithili.

The converb in Maithili is a linguistically valid category. It tends to share all the tour main characteristics that are associated with converbs across the human languages of the world, i.e. nonfinite, verb form, adverbial, and subordination (Haspelmath 1995: 4). Maithili converb too does not have the degree of autonomy that is associated with the status of lexemes; clearly it is inflectional, and not derivational.

The converb in Modern Maithili is marked by the affix -k[??]/-ke (also by an allomorph -k[??]e depending on idiolectal stylistic predilections and written variously in Devanagari as <-ka>, <-kae>, <-kaya>, and <-ke>) which is attached to a tenseless verb of a nonfinite clause in a sentence.

A preliminary description of the morphology of the Modern Maithili converb <-ka> is reported in Yadav (2001) wherein it is described that <-ka> is a non-neutral affix in that it tends to trigger changes in the shape of the verbal base to which it is attached. The purpose of the present paper is to present a historical linguistic survey of the diachronic origins of Maithili converbs in Old Maithili and Middle Maithili.

The sources of material for the purpose of the present analysis are listed below:

Old Maithili (circa 9th to 16th centuries)

1. Caryapada (circa 800-1100) hymns of Siddha poets

2. Varna-Ratnakara (circa 1325) of Jyotirisvara (circa 1280-1340)

3. Kirttipataka (early 15th century) of Vidyapati (circa 1360-1448)

4. Kirttilata (circa 1406) of Vidyapati

5. Goraksavijaya-nataka (early 15th century) of Vidyapati

6. Padavali (early 15th century) of Vidyapati

Middle Maithili (circa 17th to 18th centuries) Middle Maithili Works from Mithila

7. Padavali/Bhajanavali (early 17th century) of Govindadasa

8. Parijataharana-nataka (early 17th century) of Umapati

9. Rukminiparinaya-nataka (mid 18th century) of Ramapati

10. Haribans/Krsnajanma (mid 18th century) of Manabodha Middle Maithili Plays by Malla Kings from Nepal

11. Haragaurivivaha-nataka (1629) of Jagajjyotirmalla (1614-1637)

12. Hari Scandranrtyam-nataka (1651) of Siddhinarasimhamalla

13. Prabhavatiharana-nataka (1656) of Jagatprakasamalla (1643-1672)

14. Pradyumnavijaya-nataka (1666) of Jagatprakasamalla

15. Parsuramopakhyana-nataka (1713) of Bhupatindramalla (1696-1722)

16. Vidyavilapa-nataka (1720) of Bhupatindramalla

It is hoped that this historical linguistic analysis will help trace the chronological growth of Maithili converbs through a time span of around 1000 years; it may also help establish linkages with the contemporary usage of converbs in Modern Maithili.

Old Maithill (circa 9th to 16th centuries)

The oldest specimens of the Maithili language are to be found in the Caryapada. There is a controversy with regard to the language of Caryapada being Old Bengali or Old Maithili. The controversy rages on to include Old Assamese, Old Oriya, and even Old Hindi. A number of eminent Bengali scholars and linguists (e.g. Hara Prasad Shastri 1916, Suniti Kumar Chatterji 1926, Prabodh Chandra Bagchi 1938, Md. Shahidullah 1940, Sukumar Sen 1948/65, Prabodh Chandra Bagchi & Shanti Bhikshu Shastri 1956) have edited, analyzed, and published the Caryapada as a work of Bengali. A Norwegian scholar, Per Kvaerne (1977), has also treated it as a work of Bengali and published its English edition in Oslo, Norway. Scholars of Maithili, on the other hand, have put forward linguistic evidence and claimed vigorously and unreservedly that the Caryapada hymns are written in some form of Old Maithili. Prominent among these are: Jayakanta Mishra (1949: 101-110), Subhadra Jha (1958:32-36) and Rajeshwar Jha (1968: 55-86). To quote Jayakanta Mishra:

   ... the language of the Caryapada represents a Proto-Maithili
   dialect of the Chika-Chiki area, midway between Standard
   Maithili and Standard Bengali, having some (esp. archaic)
   features in common with other Magadhan speeches (1949:110).

Caryapada (circa 800-1100)

The converb in the Caryapada is commonly expressed by an affixation of -i to the verb stem; use of allomorphically variant forms <-ia> and <-ia> is also found in the text. (1) Examples cited below are form Per Kvaerne (1977) and song numbers and page numbers are given within brackets.

-i
duli  duhi   pita dharana na jai                                 (2:77)
 'having milked'

sahaje thira   kari   varuni sandhe                              (3:82)
  'having done/made'
je ajaramara   hoi   didha kandhe                                (3:82)
  'having become'
sadguru bohe   bujhi  re kasu kahini                          (23: 172)
  'having understood'
uju re uju   chari   ma lehu re bangka                            (32:)
  'having abandoned
-ia
lui bhanai guru   pucchia   jana                                 (1:67)
  'having asked'
raga desa moha   laia chara                                    (11:119)
  'having smeared (the ashes of ...)
papa punya   beni   tiria   sikala   modia   khambhathatna     (16:142)
  'having broken'   'having shattared'
chadia   bhaya ghina   loacara                                 (31:196)
  'having abandoned (fear, repulsion and wordly conduct)'
-ia
dasami duarata cihna   dekhia                                    (3:82)
  'having seen'

ali kali beni sari   sunia                                    (17: 146)
  'having heard'
dombi   bibahia   ahariu jama                                  (19:155)
   'having married'
dukhe sukhe eku   karia   bhunjai indijani                     (34:208)
  'making/having made'

It is worth noting here that the Modern Maithili converb <-ka> and its historical antecedents are totally unavailable in the Caryapada.

Varna-Ratnakara (circa 1325)

The Varna-Ratnakara of Jyotirisvara-kavisekharacarya was composed in 1325 and it is preserved in a Manuscript copied in 1507. It happens to be the oldest extant Maithili prose text and it was published by Suniti Kumar Chatterji & Babua Misra (1940), and Anand Mishra & Govinda Jha (1980). The historical continuity of the converb -i of the Caryapada is also evidenced in the Varna-Ratnakara. The examples given below are from Chatterji & Misra (1940) and the original pagination of the Manuscript is indicated within brackets.

-i
lai/lai   (29a)   'carrying/having carried'
lipi      (52b)   'having smeared the ground
                  (with clay, cow dung and water)'
bhai/bhai (47a)   'having become/becoming'
je rajadese hakari haluaha (44b, 'having invited'

In Varna-Ratnakara, too, the Modern Maithili conberb <-ka> or its historical antecedents are unavailable.

Kirttipataka (early 15th century)

Vidyapati's (1350-1448) avahattha/apabhramsa work Kirttipataka was edited and published with a Modern Maithili translation by Umesh Mishra (1960a) and with Sanskrit and Hindi translations by Shashinatha Jha and Govind Jha (1992). In Kirttipataka , too, the converb is expressed by the affix -i. Examples given below are from Umesh Mishra (1960a) and the page numbers are provided within brackets.

suni vyavahara subu(dhi)hi pandia         (7) 'having heard'
sabaka ghara urbbaha palati jani jambia   (7) 'having turned'
parakkhi yata sangini                     (9) 'having observed/noticed'
lajjalu ki paisi matala                  (11) 'having penetrated'
kahu ancara dhari khancae                (11) 'having held'

A couple of instances of -e affixation are also found in the text:

kahu asa dae bamcae    (11) 'giving/having
                            given/offered'
kahu rosa darasae      (11) 'having
  kutila bhauha bhare       shown/exhibited'
  bhangae

It is worth noting that up until the Kirttipataka of Vidyapati, the use of the Modern Maithili converb <-ka> or its historical antecedents <-kahu> or <kahu> is not available.

Kirttilata (circa 1406)

Another avahattha/apabhramsa work of Vidyapati, Kirttilata, was edited and published by a number of scholars in Bengali (e.g. Hara Prasad Shastri 1924), Hindi (e.g. Baburam Saksena 1929, 1935; Vasudeva Sharan Agrawal 1962 and Shashinatha Jha 1997), and Maithili (e.g. Umesh Mishra 1960b; Ramanath Jha 1970b; and Govind Jha 1992).

Written in circa 1406, Vidyapati's prose-verse work Kirttilata contains numerous examples of -i affixation expressing the role of the converb. Examples cited below are from Govind Jha (1992) and page numbers are provided within brackets.

sahasa sadhi                       (8) 'having upheld'
patisahi aradhi                    (8) 'having worshipped'
pitrvai'ra uddhari                 (8) 'having avenged'
maryada chadi                     (18) 'having abandoned'
mukhacandra kari adhogati dekhi   (22) 'having seen'
raahni karo mukharavinda dekhi    (36) 'having seen'
dhari caranatala appia            (38) 'having held'
nina saja upekkhi                 (44) 'having noticed/observed'
garua garua sunda mari            (48) 'having killed/hit'
kumbhodbhava kare niyama peli     (48) 'having pushed/observed'
sattu kari kittikallolini laghi
  bhela para                      (50) 'having crossed over'

Occasionally, the -ia of the Caryapada is also used in the Kirttilata. Examples are from Baburam Saksena (1935/1965):

   Choddia 'having abandoned' (Saksena 1935/65: 70)
   karia 'having done ' (Saksena 1935/65: 70)

A few instances of -e affixation expressing the role of the converb are also evident in the Kirttilata:

   dhae 'having run' (Saksena 1935/65: 62)
   dekhae 'having shown' (Saksena 1935/65: 66)

What is curious is that the commonly used converb of Middle Maithili, <-kahu>, is also found in the Kirttilata. The affix <-kahu> may thus be termed as a precursor of the Middle Maithili converb <-kahu> or <kahu>, and of the Modern Maithili <-ka> or <-kae>. As in Modern Maithili, the addition of <-kahu> to verb stems triggers alternation in verb stems in the avahattha/apabhramsa of Kirttilata as well. (2)

Examples:

suni kahu        (Saksena 1935/65: 98)
'having heard'
dhae kahu        ("              : 62)
'having run'
thelli kahu      ("              : 100)
'having pushed'
palati kahu      ("              : 110)
'having turned around'

Goraksavijaya-nataka (early 15th century)

Vidyapati's Goraksavijaya-nataka was edited and published (with the rather unclear and illegible photocopy of the original Manuscript written in the Tirhuta/Mithilaksara script) by Umesh Mishra & Jayakanta Mishra (1961). This Sanskrit play contains songs in Maithili. The examples cited below are from these Maithili songs.

In Goraksavijaya-nataka, too, the converb is expressed by the affixation of- i, e.g.

dharama rakhi dhana bharia bhandara (9)
   'keeping/having observed'
carihu disa buli dindima dela (10)
   'having walked around'
pani pasari visuddhaka geana (14)
   'having washed/cleaned'
bhanai Vidyapati anubhava jani (19)
   'having known/experienced'
(On one occasion, -ia-is also used:
bhanahi Vidyapati jolia hatha (23)
   'having joined (the palms) together'

Padavali (early 15th century)

Vidyapati's mellifluous songs, popularly known as Padavali, were edited, translated, and published by a number of scholars in: Bengali (e.g. Sharadacharan Mitra Bangabda 1285/A.D.1878, Nagendranath Gupta Bangabda 1316/A.D.1909, and Khagendranath Mitra and Biman Bihari Mazumdar 1952), Hindi (e.g. Nagendranath Gupta 1910 and Shashinath Jha 1961, 1967, 1979), English (e.g. G.A. Grierson 1882a), and Maithili (e.g. Shivanandan Thakur 1941; Subhadra Jha 1954; Ramanath Jha 1970a; Umanath Jha 1972; Surendra Jha 'Suman' & Ramdeo Jha 1977; Vidyapati Thakur 1979; Govind Jha 1981; and Ramdeo Jha & Mohan Bharadwaj 1999). Of these, I have access mostly to English and Maithili editions of Vidyapati's Padavali. The examples cited below are from Shivanandan Thakur (1941) and Vidyapati Thakur 1979, with me song number and the page number provided within brackets.

In Padavali, too, the converb is most commonly expressed by the affixation of -i, e.g.

Palata niasa nirasa nihari, kahabahu kaona hoiti i gari (21,355)
   'having seen'
capi cibuka he adhara madhu pibe, kanone janala hameu dharaba jibe
   'having pressed hard' (23,356)
ghengala badhi patora dhaelaha aisani tua paripati (24,356)
   'having tied up/knotted'
ketaki kusuma ani viraci vividha bani caudisa sajala sala (30,363)
   'bringing/having brought' 'having created'
tua guna kahi kahi murajhi palae mahi, rayani gamabae jagi (76,403)
   'having told/described' 'having fainted' 'having awakened'

A couple of instantes of -e <-e, -ya> affixation are also found in the
 text:

duti bhae janu janamae nari, binu bhele bhelihu goari (20,354)
   'having become'
ghrta madhu dudha daya, nete bati kae caudisa delaka dipamala (30,363)
   'having offered' 'having lighted a lamp'

Thakur's Padavali also contains one instance of -kahu and six instantes
 of -kae (a reminiscent of Modern Maithili -kae):

-kahu
sisire mahipati dape capikahu raja bhela vasanta (17,351)
   'having pressed hard'
-kae
manamathatanta antadhari padhikae avasare bheli siani (17,351)
   'having read'
tanhikari dhasamasi virahaka sosa, tane didhakae kaitava posa (18,352)
   'having made firmer'
ghrta madhu dudha daya, nete bati kae caudisa delaka dipamala (30,363)
   'having offered' 'having lighted a lamp'
se jani daive anikae niramala kamini anta na bhara/ve (65,392)
   'having learnt' 'having brought'
aisani kae paribodhi pathaihaha (74,401)
   'having allured/convinced'
bhala kae hari heri na bhele i bada lagala bhora (81,409)
   'in a good manner'

To conclude thus far, in Old Maithili the converb was mainly morphological, i.e. suffixal. In other words, the suffixes -i/-ia and -e were attached to consonant-ending and vowel-ending tenseless verb stems, respectively, of a nonfinite subordinate clause of a matrix clause. Use of a separate and distinct word-like particle or affix was virtually nonexistent in Old Maithili--although scant uses of such word-like affixes (i.e -kahu and -kae) accompanied with concomitant verb stem alternations are traced in Vidyapati's Kirttilata and Padavali.

Middle Maithili (circa 17th to 18th centuries) Middle Maithili Works from Mithila Padavali/Guavali/Bhajanavali (early 17th century)

Govindadasa's songs, variously entitled as Padavali/Gitavali/Bhajanavali were edited and published by a number of native scholars of Maithili: Mathura Prasad Dixit 1932, S.K. Jha 1933, Amaranatha Jha 1942, and Govind Jha 1982. The examples cited below are from Govind jha 1982 and song numbers are provided within brackets.

In Govindadasa's songs, too, the converb is most commonly expressed by the affixation of -i:

benuka phuka dhuka madananala kula indhanahi pajari (5)
   'having added fire'
sarabasa lae palatali puna bindhala ramgini bamka nihari (20)
   'having taken away' 'having gazed'
sahacara meli calali jaba sundari kalindi karae sanana (21)
   'having gathered/accompanied'
bhitaka cita bhujaga heri je dhani camaki-camaki ghana kapa (41)
   'having seen' 'having been astonished'
bidagadha madhava anubhava jani ... (59)
   'having learnt/experienced'
jari jari tatahi bhasama sa(m)ghata (98)
   'having been burnt (into ashes)'
era kahi sundari digha nisasahi murchiti harala geana (105)
   'having said/uttered'
sundari radha abae bani (112)
   'having become/adorned as'
se rasa suni nagara vara nari (120)
   'listening to'

A few instances of -e affixation are also evident in the text:

bala kae kharatara nakhara sikhara sano motima banahi bithara (13)
   'having added extra energy/force'
adhara sudha dae punahi jiabae punu niramada kae teja (13)
   'having offered the ambrosia of lips' 'having made impotent'
kara kamkana pana kae sukhabandhana sikhae bhujaga-guru pase (40)
   'taking an oath'
sithi banae badhaha punu kacari (65)
   'having parted the hair'
dhae dhaela giridharaka vasane (74)
   'having run'

Parijataharana-nataka (early 17th century)

The Parijataharana-nataka of Umapati Upadhyaya is a Sanskrit-Prakrit play but it contains a total of 20 Maithili songs. This play was edited, translated, and published by Grierson 1917, Chetanatha Jha 1959, and Mishra et al 1984. The examples cited below are from Grierson 1917 and song and page numbers are provided within brackets. In Parijataharana-nataka, the converb is expressed exclusively through the affixation of -i

kara jori rukumini krsna samga vasanta-ramga niharahi (7,30)
   'with folded hands'
kahi bhajaba teji tahi (10,32)
   'having abandoned'
sabha pariteji hari mohi phula dela (16,37)
   'having abandoned'
jaladhara-jala jani hia hari (18,40)
   'having learnt about'
katana jatana dhari jau paripalia sapa na manaya pose (20,42)
   'having held (with utmost care)'
'thamahi thora thoki binata-suta bhangala diggaja danta (37,53)
   'having hit hard'
guna bujhi bhupa karia sanamane (42,58)
   'having realized'

Rukminiparinaya-nataka (mid 18th century)

The Rukminiparinaya-nataka of Ramapati Upadhyaya was edited and published by Jayakanta Mishra 1961/1368 sala. In this play, too, the converb is commonly expressed by the affixation of -i and -e. The examples cited below are from J. Mishra 1961, with page numbers provided within brackets.

-i
khandaparasu tandava dekhi harasita (2)
   'seeing/having seen'
raja-kaja teji (20)
   'having quit'
e ki sehe suni Duna puna muruchu dusaha gun (78)
   'having heard/learnt' 'having realized'
puruba kalusacaya jani (82)
   "having known/learnt'
kahia vicari bidukhi sakhi abahu purata mora kama (82)
   'having considered'
sehao kati pune hasi jadurae (95)
   'having cut' 'having smiled'
-e
bhupali nikata bheli gae thadhi (18)
   'having gone'
lae sakhijana tasu calac samipe (87)
   'having gathered/accompanied'
lae gela govinda garuda cadhaya (93)
   'having caused to mount'

It is worth noting that a couple of instances of Modern Maithili converb--kae are also evident in the text of this play:

girija sahita sakala agha duri kae (3)
   'having removed'
katae jaha madhava kae cori (94)
   'having stolen/abducted'

Haribans/Krsnajanma (mid 18th century)

Manabodh's Haribans (Skt. haribamsa) is one of the most oft-quoted works of Middle Maithili. It was first edited and translated into English by George Abraham Grierson (1882b, 1884a,b). Later scholars of Maithili who edited and published this work christened it as Krsnajanma, e.g. Umesh Mishra 1934 1948; Dhareshwar Jha n.d.; Ramanath Jha 1949 and Surendra Jha 'Suman' 1970/1988. Maithili Academy, Patna also published a Maithili edition of Krsnajanma (1988).

In Haribans, too, converbs are expressed by the affixation of -i in consonant- ending verb stems and -e in vowel-ending verb stems in general. The examples cited below are from Grierson 1882b and page numbers are provided within brackets.

-i
i suni sabhaka judaela kana (132)
   'having heard/learnt'
ancala jhapi bhavana lai geli (135)
   'having covered/covering'
anana cumbi payodhara dhaila (135)
   'kissing/having kissed'
-e
kamsa ae tohe leta uthae (132)
   'having come'
asikha dai hari hridae lagaula (134)
   'having blessed'
hama bharijanma sudini bhai rahaba (143)
   'having become'

After Vidyapati's avahattha/apabhramsa work, Kirttilata, Manabodha's Haribans is the first Middle Maithili work in which converbs of k-forms are attested, e.g.

-kahu
gai kahu gama gohari lagaola (137)
   'having gone'
dhai kahu taraka jhataha kaila (138)
   'having held'
bicahi jhapati kahu haladhara dhaila (147)
   'having suddenly attacked'
-kahu
jiti kahu majhilahi phani bhela thadha (137)
   'having conquered'
cadhi kahu abathi harathi pheri (150)
   'having climbed'
-kae/<-kai>
sarasara kai ghara paisali dhaya (134)
   'hurriedly'

Middle Maithili Plays by Malla Kings of Nepal Haragaurivivaha-nataka (1629)

Jagajjyotirmalla reigned as king of Bhaktapur from 1614 to 1637. His play Haragaurivivaha-nataka was composed in N.S. 749, i.e. A.D. 1629. This play was edited and published by Ramdeo Jha 1970. The examples of converbs cited below are from Ramdeo Jha 1970/1988 and page numbers are provided within brackets.

-i
vihusi vihusi muni mukha sabe hera (45)
   'having smiled/smilingly'
manamatha mari nari alimgaa (47)
   'having killed/suppressed'
sasi uthi calala akase (61)
   'having arisen'
toha teji gati nahi ane (63)
   'having abandoned'
he isvara, neha duhu vyaktika samarasya dekhi hamara bada ananda
   'having seen/witnessed'
bhela acha (63)
-e
bhasama aga dae ... (34)
   'having applied'
he parvvati mahadeva manoduskhe baisal chathi gae manabaha (59)
   'having gone'
Hariscandranrtyam-nataka (1651)

Siddhinarasimhamalla's play Hariscandranrtyam-nataka was composed in N.S. 771, i.e. A.D. 1651. This play was edited and published with a German introduction by August Conrady in 1891.

Originally written as a habilitationsschrift submitted to Leipzig University on November 23, 1891, the work was entitled as Das Hari Ccandranrityam: Ein Altnepalesisches Tanzspiel.

This play is a Bangla-Maithli (more Bangla) mixed play. Consequently, only a few uses of Maithili converbs are evidenced in this play.

-i
tuva mukha heri (25)
   'having soma'
raya rani kare jori (32)
   'having joined palms together'
raja kini harara candare (34)
   'having bought off'
-kahu
nirantara dustaka samge priti karikahu ... (16)
   'having been in association with'
raja hariscandraka satya dekhikahu paramananda bhai gera (39)
   'having witnessed'
ahe papistha, bhara kavakahu bais (42)
   'having relied/having become certain'

Prabhavantharana-nataka (1656)

Jagatprakasamalla reigned as king of Bhaktapur from 1643 to 1672. His play Prabhavatiharana-nataka was composed in N.S. 776, i.e. A.D. 1656. This play was edited and published by Lekhanath Mishra in 1972. In this play, converbs are expressed most generally by an affixation of -i and kae. One instante of -kahu as also evidenced in it.

The examples cited below are from Lekhanath Mishra 1972 and page numbers are provided within brackets--although we are told by Brinkhaus 1987 that Mr. Mishra has erred copiously in his transliteration from the Newari script into the Devanagari script.

-i
sehe dekhi mora upajala ananda (8)
   'having seen'
vihusi karaha hama sane sadabhava (8)
   'smilingly'
sira mukuta dhari paravesa dela (9)
   'having held/worn'
he hamsi ! ihaka katha suni viraha jvala bhela (22)
   'having learnt/heard'
satru mari devata sabaka sananda karu (62)
   'having killed'
- e/<-ya>
he priya loke! antapura jaya rahu (19)
   'having gone'
... hame varia gaya samidha anaya jaichi (34)
   'having gone'
he isvara ! apana putra pathae, vajranabha mari devakaja karu (29)
   'having sent' 'having killed'
-kae/<-kaya>
he hamsi ! bape hama antahpura avaruddhi kaya lakhala chiahu ... (22)
   'having obstructed'
... srmgara bhave mohi kaya anaba (34)
   'having charmed'
-kahu
katane jatane hamsi pathae kahu ekara jiva karaba dure (11)
   'having sent'

Pradyumnavijaya-nataka (1666)

Written in N.S. 786, i.e. May-June 1666 A.D., to be performed on the occasion of his second son Ugramalla's tonsure ceremony, Jagatprakasamalla's play Pradyumnavijaya-nataka was edited and published in Germany by Horst Brinkhaus (1987, Appendix 1, pp. 161-345) with a Roman transliteration and an English translation.

This play may be viewed as a prototype of a Middle Maithili play in that k-forms of converbs abound in it. A total of 18 occurrences of -kahu are evidenced in the text, while -i, -e and -kae occur only four to five times. A few examples are given below.

-i
naradaka bacana mani (282)
   'having acquieseed'
jathara phari (314)
   'having torn'
-e
eka bhaya (172)
   'having come together/united'
galahatha dae khedu (300)
   'having pushed (the neck) by hand'
-kae
takhane ihana pradyunmaka rupa kae ... (250)
   'having looked like/acted as Pradyumna'
bagamati bamdhana kae (260)
   'having tied/obustructed the river Bagmati'
-kahu
jae kahu (196)
   'having gone'
dekhi kahu (198)
   'having seen'
jala snana kava kahu (242)
   'having bathed'
bhayi marabae kahu (292)
   'having got killed'
pathae kahu (314)
   'having sent
kati kahu (314)
   'having killed'

Parsuramopakhyana-nataka (1713)

Bhupatindramalla was born on November 18, 1674. He was crowned as the king of Bhaktapur at the age of 22 in 1696. After a rule of 26 years, Bhupatindramalla died young at the age of 48 in 1722.

Written in N.S. 833, i.e. A.D. 1713, to be performed on the occasion of the tonsure ceremony of the crown prince, Bhupatindramalla's play Parsuramopakhyana-nataka is as yet unpublished. Research leading to publish a critical edition of the Manuscript of the play containing original Newari text, Devanagari and Roman transliterations, English translation, a Middle Maithili skeleton-grammar, critical commentary on Medieval dramaturgy, and index is ongoing (R. Yadav, in preparation). For a preliminary enquiry into this play, the reader is referred to R. Yadav and R. Jha 1982 and R. Yadav 1990.

Copious instances of -i, -e, and -kae converbal affixations are available in the Manuscript of this play; only one instance of -kahu is available in it. A few examples are provided below.

-i
kanaka kamala sama kuca juga dekhi                  (Folio 7b)
   'seeing/having seen'
vidhumukhi vihusi vilokaha thora                    (Folio 46b)
   'smilingly'
sahasrarjjuna raja, asrama nikata ae, munirajake
 mari, kamadhenu
   'coming (near)'            'killing'
hari laya gela                                      (Folio 58b)
   'abducting'
-e/<-ya>
suvadani sunu mana daya mora bani                   (Folio 7b)
   'attentively'
tahnika puspamala pahirae, pranama karu             (Folio 16a)
   'garlanding'
jakhane renuka devika, vivaha bhela, indra ae,
 jautuka, delahni                                   (Folio 37b)
   'having come/arrived'
raja sakrobha bhaya, hinkake, khadga prahare,
     angrily'
i avastha daya kamadhenu hari laya gela             (Folio 54b-55a)
'rendering (him) to such a pitiable condition'
-kae
nagaraloka bvatura kae, anu                         (Folio 14b)
'gathering/collecting together'
vicitra vastralam, kara pahi(ri) kae                (Folio 15a)
    'wearing'
he purohita rajakumari prasahani kae anali          (Folio 19b)
   'having decorated/bedecked'
ihana, snana kae, cita pradaksina kaya agni
 pravesa karu                                       (Folio 57a)
'having bathed' 'having circled around'
-kahu
... i papistha raja mrgayavyaje ae kahu ...         (Folio 51b)
    'having come'

Vidyavilapa-nataka (1720)

Written in N.S. 840, i.e. A.D. 1720. Bhupathudramalla's play Vidyavilapanataka was edited by Nanigopala Vandopadhyaya 1916-17 and Jayakanta Mishra 1965. Copious instantes of -i and -e affixes of converbs are available in the text, while a mere three occurrcnces of the k-form converb -kahu are available in the text. The examples cited below are from Jayakanta Mishra 1965 and page numbers are provided within brackets.

-i
apana nagara rahi karaba samala                     (4)
  'staying/living'
harasita hoya tihi paricaya jani                   (18)
  'having learnt'
se bujhi tinu               mili karaba jatane     (27)
'having learnt/understood'     'having united'
-e/<-ya>
parakata bhaya hame puraoba kame                    (4)
   'having appeared (in human form)'
peta bharaba duhu vanacara khaya                   (13)
   'having devoured/eaten'
-kahu
paga bamdhi kahu dhaya taravare                    (11)
   'having tied (the turban)'
pana (pothi) laya kahu
vividh racita phala laya kahu aja                  (17)
    'having taken'

Conclusion

Based on the discussion presented above, the following conclusions may suggest themselves.

A. In Old Maithili, the converbal affix was invariably -i (or, its allomorphic variants -ia/-ia). Occasional use of the converbal affix -e in vowel-ending verb stems may be viewed as a linguistic innovation of this period in the historical growth of the Maihtili language. (3)

B. It is a historical coincidence that in the formation of compound verbs in Modern Maithili, the very Same -i and -e affixes are used. In other words, the -i and -e affixes are isomorphic (for more information, see Yadav 1996). Examples:

1. < o     kha-o /kha-e    le-l-athi >          Complex Predicate
   he-hon eat            take-PST-3 hon
   'He ate up'
2. < o      kha-o-ka/ kha-e-ka le-l-athi >      Converbal Construction
   he-hon  eat-CONV      take-PST-3 hon
   'He took (it) after having eaten'
3. < o        cal-i       ge-l-aha >            Complex Predicate
   he-hon     walk        go-PST-3 hon
   'He went away.'
4. < o       cal-i-ka     ge-l-aha              Converbal Construction
   he-hon    walk-CONV    go-PST- 3 hon
   'He went walkingly/He went on foot.'

C. In Middle Maithili, along with -i and -e suffixes, converbs were dominantly represented by such k-form affixes as -kahu, -kahu, and-kae; these were later transformed into -ka, -kae, and -ko in Modern Maithili. Examples:

5 dekh-ikahu 'having seen' (Brinkhaus ed. 1987: 198)

6. mar-ikahu 'having killed' (Grierson ed. 1882b: 135)

7. moh-i kae anaba 'having charmed' (L. Mishra ed. 1972: 34)

8. bagamati bamdhana kae 'having obstructed the river Bagmati' (Brinkhaus ed. 1987: 260)

9. calu, re bhagina, ghur-i ke ghara 'returnmg' (Grierson ed. 1885: 639)

D. In an influential article published in Germany, Grierson ed. 1885:635 made a highly insightful observation:

Conjunctive Participle. Formed by adding [??] to the 1st verbal noun. Thus [??], [??], [??], etc ... The word [??] commonly called the conj. part. of [??] is in reality no such thing. It is derived independently from the Vaidik [??] (Skr. [??]), hence Pr. [??] (Hem Cha.IV, 271) and Bihari (with elision of [??][??]. Hence [??], means 'having done the action of seeing.'

It is thus clear that the Modern Maithili converb -ka/ke is not derived from the verb stem kar- (infinitive karaba) 'to do'. As a matter of fact, diachronically, the converb <-ka> and the contracted form <ka-> of the action verb <kar-> 'do' are totally unrelated.

E. The Modern Maithili converb -ka is quite akin to the Middle Maithili converb -kahu/-kahu; in all likelihood, -kahu/-kahu may be viewed as the logical historical antecedent of the Modern Maithili converb -ka or -ke.

F. If the date of composition of Vidyapati's Kirttilata is truly A.D. 1406 as claimed by Ramanath Jha 1972:26, then it can be safely asserted that the first attested use of the k-form converb, i.e. -kahu/-kahu, in Maithili was made in 1406.

G. As the k-form of the converb is totally unavailable in Vidyapati's Kirtipataka, it may be surmised that Kirttipataka was indeed written earlier than Kirttilata, and that in all probability Kirttilata is not the first work of Vidyapati as is commonly believed.

H. During the diachronic development of Maithili, a curious historical fact is observed. It is noticed that the morphs used as converbal affixes in Old Maithili are used as phonological changes during stem alternations upon addition of k-forms of converbs in Middle and Modern Maithili non-finite verb stems. Needless to say that the phonological rules remain the same, i.e. -i and -e are inserted in consonant-ending and vowel-ending verb stems, respectively (for more details, see Yadav 2001). Examples:

Old Maithili (circa 9th to 16th centuries)

10. duh-i 'having milked' (Kvaerne ed. 1977: 66)

11. lagh-i 'having crossed over' (Govind Jha ed. 1992: 50)

Middle Maithili (circa 17th to 18th centuries)

12. dekh-i-kahu "having seen' (Brinkhaused. 1987: 198)

13. cadh-i kahu "having climbed' (Grierson ec'. 1882b: 150)

14. la-ya kahu 'having taken' (J. Mishra ed. 1965: 17)

15. patha-e kahu 'having sent' (L. Mishra ed. 1972:11)

Modern Maithili (19th to 21st centuries)

16. pib-i ke4 "having drunk' (Grierson ed. 1885: 640)

17. ksarap-i ke 'having jumped' (Grierson ed. 1885:651)

18. l-e ke 'having taken' (Grierson ed. 1885: 636)

19. o has-i-ka bajalaha 'he spoke smilingly'

20. ai-kalhi adhikatara pet.a cir-i-ka bacca paida kaela jaita achi 'These days, most children are born by caesarian operation'

21. o dabai kha-(e)-ka nika bhelaha 'He recuperated after taking medicine'

22. kitaba da-(e)-ka jaeba 'Please go after having given (back) the book (to me).'

I. The present historical linguistic analysis of Maithili converbs may offer fresh linguistic evidence for as well as incisive insights into the acts of division of the Maithili language and literature into such periods as Old, Middle, and Modern Maithili. Needless to say, the current practice of using such labels as Old Maithili, Middle Maithili, and Modern Maithili is at its best tentative and speculative.

J. Finally, one further benefit that may accrue from the present historical linguistic analysis of Maithili converbs is that linguists of any persuasion may fruitfully utilize the Maithili data to carry out a pan-Indo-Aryan typological study of converbs in Indo-Aryan languages.

Notes

(1.) It deserves to be noted that converbs in -i and -ia are not unique to Maithili. Converbs in -i are also a feature of regional Bengali and underlie the Sadhu Bhasa Bengali forms. Remnant of the older converb form -i is also evidenced in Nepali, e.g. phulcoki-bata ek lakh phul-haru lya-i phulcoki--ABL 100,000 flower-P bring-SEQ[CONV] jyoti-lai carh-a-T ... light-OBJ proceed-CAUS-SEQ[CONV] 'Bringing 100,000 flowers from Phulcoki and offering them up to the light ... (Peterson 2002, 105-106)

Converbal forms in -ia are a standard feature of Sadhu Bhasa Bengali and also occur in written texts of most conservative and respected writers, such as Bankim Chandra Chatterji and R. Tagore, as quoted in Klaiman (1983:141):

ghare    bristi    prabes    kariyaajal   bosiyaache
room-L   rain      entrance  do-CP water  has-sat

'The rain having come into the room, water accumulated' (Bankim Chandia Chatterji, Racanabali v. 2, Calcutta 1954:60)

raannaagharer   paase   praacir   bhaangiyaa  katokgulo
kitchen-G       beside  wall      break-up    some
it    jaro        haiyaa          aache
brick piled-up    become-CP       are

'Beside the kitchen, a wall having broken, some bricks are piled up' (R. Tagore, Galpaguccha. Calcutta 1954:165)

2. k- forms of converbs are also evidenced marginally in Nepali and extensively in Hindi-Urdu, e.g.

Nepali:      ma     kha-i-kana ga-e
             I     eat-CONV go-PST-1
             'I went after eating' [lit: 'I went after having eaten']
Hindi-Urdu: usne nahaakar khaanaa nahu khaayaa (Kachru 1981:42)
            he ag bathe CP meal    not ate
            'He didn't eat his meal after bathing'

3. -e form converbs in consonant final verb stems (and -ye form converbs in vowel final verb forms) ave also a dominant characteristic of Modern Bengali, e. g.

se   baari   giye  kaapor   chere     caan  korio
he   house   go-CP clothes  leave-CP  bath  did
'he went home, took off his clothes, and had a bath'
osudh        kheye Jodur    phal     holo
medicine eat-CP    Jodu-G    benefit  became
'Jodu was benefited by taking medicine'
lu         lege       se    maaraa  gaelo
heatstroke affect-CP he died
'He got heatstroke and died' (Klaiman 1983:138)

4. Variants of k-forms of converbs realized as -ke ave also evidenced in regional Hindi, e.g. daurke jao varna naraz huga 'Go quickly [lit: 'run and go'] or I will be annoyed' (Alice Davison 1986:2, as quoted in Masica 1991:399)

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