Nurturing children's concepts of time and chronology through literature.

Time is an emerging concept during childhood. According to the Geography Education Standards Project (as cited in Banks & Banks, 1999), "The development of a mature sense of time and chronology is a slow, complex, sequential, and cumulative task" (p. 145). At first, children's concept of time is rather vague. For example, one mother, in discussing with her 4-year-old daughter the deeds of the notorious James gang, took the child to see the monument erected to mark the spot of the James gang's first train robbery. The girl asked, "Oh, Mother, did you see it?," as if it were a recent event, instead of something that happened nearly a century before.

Banks and Banks suggest that the goal for teaching time concepts and chronology in the elementary and middle school years should be to nurture students' ability to understand and interpret time concepts and comprehend how past and present events are interrelated. Inhelder and Piaget (1962) conclude that children's understanding of time is related to intellectual growth and interaction with the environment (Wadsworth, 1996). Others suggest that children's social and cultural backgrounds and their familiarity with tasks and situations may contribute to their understanding of time (Donaldson, 1979). Gardner (1983) considers that differences in emerging thinking abilities, including concepts about time, are related to different intelligences.

Banks and Banks explain that young children's difficulty with understanding time involves relationship concepts. Such concepts define a particular association between attributes or distinguishing characteristics. Young children lack sufficient experiences with the basic facts related to time, and with abstracting these facts to establish a relationship. Implicit in the researchers' statement is the importance of home and school environments, rich in such experiences, where adults and children interact based primarily on their experiences.

By ages 10 and 11, students have gained an increased understanding of time and the chronology of past events. By the middle school years (ages 12-14), many students have developed the ability to understand time concepts fully (Inhelder & Piaget, 1962). Whatever the factors involved, some children will develop time and chronology concepts earlier than Inhelder and Piaget have suggested, and some will take longer to develop these concepts.

For lessons concerning the past, Garcia and Michaelis (2001) encourage teachers to nurture children's habits of the mind (e.g., historical empathy, universality of humankind, and appreciation of cultural diversity). Within the social studies program as well as in other areas of the curriculum, these knowledges, values, and behaviors are encouraged through student-teacher interaction (Vygotsky, 1962) and peer discussions (Almasi, 1996; Gambrell, 1996).

Discussions of quality literature from different genres can serve as a basis for connecting children to experiences in the past and support their developing sense of time and chronology. Such experiences in the primary grades nurture sequencing ability and help children develop a sense of order and time. This age group enjoys stories of the recent past as well as those about long ago. Such literature experiences also help primary grade students begin to understand that individuals may have different viewpoints about the past and to see relationships between human decisions and consequences. As middle grade students study history, they can expand their knowledge of the past and of historical concepts and inquiry. They can begin to recognize and appreciate that differences in historical perspectives are influenced by individuals' experiences, societal values, and cultural traditions (National Council for the Social Studies [NCSS], 1994).

The following suggestions for literature experiences representing different genres progress from early childhood to middle school years and the authors believe they support children's emerging time and chronology understandings. (Most volumes that have older copyrights and are no longer available in hardback can be found in paperback or through out-of-print dealers.) For each section, the authors have included representative history standards and habits of the mind.

Children's Experiences in the Past--Picture Books

Even young children can identify with children's concepts and experiences in the past that are common to them, such as flying, moving, and intergenerational bonding. Well-illustrated picture books can aid in visualization of the past.

Flying

Standards Examples

K-4 (Level I-II) History Standard 8: Understands major discoveries in science and technology, some of their social and economic effects, and the major scientists and inventors responsible for them.

Habits of the Mind Example

Understands the forces that cause historical change. Recognizes the importance of individuals in the shaping of history.

Literature experiences presented to young children can begin to nurture historical perspectives. Children are familiar with the concept of flight, having observed birds flying and kites soaring or having flown in planes. Allan Drummond's picture book The Flyers (2003) explores two examples of flying in Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, in the early 1900s: Children flying kites and pretending to fly down the sand dunes, and the Wright Brothers experimenting with their "crazy kites" as they work on developing the airplane. When the Wrights successfully fly their plane, "Flyer," the children imagine a flying bus that will transport many people and even imagine flying to the moon. To extend this discussion, Jane Yolen's (2003) picture book My Brothers' Flying Machine portrays the Orvilles' sister's account of the aviation breakthrough. Yolen also explores flying from a much more ancient perspective in Wings (1991), a simplified version of the Greek myth of Daedalus.

Moving

Standards Example

K-4 (Level I-II) History Standard 5: Understands the causes and nature of movements of large groups of people into and within the United States, now and long ago.

Habits of the Mind Example

Historical empathy--Views past events as they might have been experienced, as they were happening.

The idea of moving from one home to another inspires a range of emotional responses in children. Several picture books about this topic with settings in the past and present can help children identify with the past. These literature experiences can encourage young children to consider the responses of others.

Lottie's Dream, by Bonnie Pryor and illustrated by Mark Graham (1992), centers on a young girl, Lottie, who is moving West by covered wagon with her family. For Lottie, the tall-grass prairie is a reminder of her former home by the sea. Many years later, Lottie still misses the sea, and so she moves back there once her children are grown. The illustrator uses the front and back endpapers as a book design element to show the beginning and ending of the story plot: The front pages are illustrated with the image of the tall-grass prairie, and the back pages depict the sea.

By contrast to Lottie's Dream, Di Salvo's A Castle on Viola Street (2001) is set in the present. The protagonist's family, who lives in cramped quarters, eventually moves into one of the homes they have refurbished as part of their volunteer work.

In Tony Johnston's The Quilt Story, illustrated by Tomie de Paola (1985), the story uses a quilt to connect the moving experiences of two families, one in the past and another in the present. First, the quilt belongs to a young pioneer girl; then, it is discovered years later by a contemporary girl.

For Eve Bunting's book So Far From the Sea (1998), Chris K. Soentpiet, the illustrator, uses a visual code of color to depict the present and the past: The present is in color; the past is in sepia tones, representing memories. As the family in the present moves from the West Coast to Massachusetts, they visit the Manzanar War Relocation Center in eastern California, where the children's grandfather is buried. Their father tells of his childhood experiences living with his Japanese American family at this center during World War II, and explains the reasons for their relocation. He tells his family that they must put the ordeal behind them, and make a home in another place and time.

Intergenerational Bonding

Standards Example

K-4 (Level I-II) History Standard 1: Understands family life now and in the past, and family life in various places long ago.

Habits of the Mind Example

Understands how the past is significant to me.

Literature experiences can help parents, grandparents, and other relatives and acquaintances share their growing-up experiences. I Dream of Trains, by Angela Johnson (2003), tells of a young boy who works in the cotton fields of the American South during the 19th century and reveres the engineer Casey Jones. A contemporary grandmother, in reading the story, wanted to impress upon her grandson his advantages of attending school each day of the school year. As a child during the cotton season, the grandmother had to work on the farm, so she could not attend school. Each night, she would superstitiously throw her dress over her shoulder to bring rain; if the gesture "worked," she could go to school the next day.

Stories From Other Cultures--Folk Stories

Folk stories of early cultures were told orally for pleasure, to explain the elements of the world, and eventually to relate the beliefs of the people (Yolen, 1981). Many are now available in written form to continue the traditions.

Standards Example

K-4 (Level I-II) History Standard 7: Understands selected attributes and historical developments of societies in Africa, the Americas, Asia, and Europe.

Russian Folklore 

Habits of the Mind Example

Understands how the past is significant to other societies.

As the Soviet Union was breaking up, a 2nd-grade teacher with whom the authors had worked for many years was preparing a unit on Russia. We suggested that part of the unit be devoted to the Russian children's recent exposure to their traditions as told through their folklore. Much of traditional Russian fine arts--ballets, symphonies, and graphic arts--is based on folk stories. This unit was expanded to include grades 2, 3, and 4.

The folk stories and related expressive activities were presented through learning centers that resulted in much sharing of projects. (This part of the Russian unit was presented in an article by Harms, Lettow, Strub, and Dale in the March 1992 issue of Book Links.)

Native American Folklore--North Central Plains

Habits of the Mind Example

Develops historical empathy.

Through his books, Paul Goble has retold many stories of the Native American nations living in the North Central Plains, illustrating them with authentic designs of these people. The stories reflect their respect for nature and the sustaining force of these nomadic hunters--the buffalo. A partial list of Goble's many retellings is included in the children's literature bibliography.

Multiple Volumes on a Topic of the Past--Historical Fiction

Discussions of multiple volumes of historical fiction on a particular event or era allow children to share different interpretations. Thus, more in-depth understandings can be achieved, and inaccuracies and bias can be sorted out.

Children's Experiences During World War II

Standards Example

Gr. 5-12 (Level II-IV) United States History Standard 25: Understands the causes and course of World War II, the character of the war at home and abroad, and its reshaping of the U.S. role in world affairs.

Habits of the Mind Example

Understands that despite cultural diversity, all peoples of the world share a common humanity.

Children throughout the world were affected by World War II, but in different ways and degrees of severity. Historical fiction volumes illustrate this. The locations of these stories, with titles and central character(s), could be plotted on a map. Also, a chart could be made with these categories included: region or country, author and title of the book, name of the central character(s), and summary of experiences during the war. Related historical fiction works are given by region of the world in the bibliography of children's books.

Community Experiences in the Salem Witchcraft Crisis

Standards Example

Gr. 5-12 (Level II-IV) United States History Standard 4: Understands how political, religious, and social institutions emerged in the English colonies.

Habits of the Mind Example

Distinguishes real from questionable evidence.

Recent nonfiction volumes on the Salem witchcraft trials era, by Aronson (2003) and Yolen and Stemple (2004), present a careful study of the many factors that may have contributed to this horrific time. Aronson suggests that many fiction works present ideas that cannot be documented: Myth becomes fact. (See the bibliography at the end of the article for a list of fiction works.)

As students read the nonfiction references, they can list the factors that caused accusations of witchcraft. Then, the students can use this list to analyze the factors presented in the historical works of fiction.

A model for this student research could be the character Charlie and his research strategies found in Jean Craighead George's Charlie's Raven (Dutton, 2004). For his research about ravens, Charlie created columns: What are good qualities about ravens? Bad qualities? What is not known? In the case of research about the Salem Witchcraft incident, these categories could be used: What is true? What is false? What is unknown?

Yolen and Stemple (2004) offer an interesting "what if." If the afflicted girls had admitted that they had been playing or experimenting with magic, would they have caused so much suffering and confusion in their community? How would the strict Puritans, who did not tolerate lying, have responded to these girls' confessions? What would have been their punishment? Another question to research is: Did anyone question the behavior of the accusers, both youth and adults, and the means of the investigators? What happened to them?

Shifts in Time Fantasy (Modern Fantasy)

Standards Example

Comprehends how past and present events are interrelated.

Habits of the Mind Example

Understands history and geography as a matrix of time and space.

Some time shifts in books involve movement in the plot from the present to a detailed account of a historical period, by way of a magical transition. These volumes are classified as modern fantasy, and portray a young character who is propelled into the past by some magical means. While in the past, the character gains insight into his/her problems in the present day. Individual students or small groups can select a book to read and then share with others in the class. Their findings can be prepared on a chart, as in Figure 1.

Graphic Organizers 

Standards Example

Gr. 5-12 (Level II-IV) United States History Standard 14: Understands the course and character of the Civil War and its effects on the American people.

Habits of the Mind Example

Understands the forces that cause historical change.

A map project can portray the travels of youth to participate in the Civil War. Several historical fiction works tell of young people who encountered real conflicts in specific geographic sites. (Example works are given in the bibliography.)

Time Lines

A single time line can visually show the chronology of a person's life or an event, such as the progression of the Lewis and Clark Expedition. Multiple time lines can relate major events over time, such as the major explorations of the New World by different countries.

Single Time Line--Poetry

Standards Example

Gr. 5-12 (Level II-IV) United States History Standard 22: Understands how the United States changed between the post-World War I years and the ending of the Great Depression.

Habits of the Mind Example

Recognizes the importance of individuals in the shaping of history and the effect of personal character on the common good.

The life of George Washington Carver can be presented as a single time line, based on Marilyn Nelson's lyrical text, Carver: A Life in Poems (Front Street, 2001). The time line can show that Carver's adult life was committed to pursuing knowledge and then sharing these findings to help poor farmers (see Figure 2).

Multiple Time Line--Nonfiction

Standards Example

Gr. 5-12 (Level II-IV) United States History Standard 19: Understands federal Indian policy and United States foreign policy after the Civil War.

Habits of the Mind Example

Develops historical empathy. Views past events as they might have been understood when they were happening.

Understands the forces that cause change in history.

Looks for causes and effects.

Grasps the interplay of change in a given period.

A multiple time line can show the progression of related events, and can synthesize information from several nonfiction sources. Such a visual can show by decades the progression of related events that led to the demise of specific Native American nations in the North Central area of the United States after the opening of the West to white settlers from the 1840s to the 1890s. The multiple time lines were synthesized from Raymond Bial's series, Lifeways. These selected nations--Cheyenne, Mandan, Nez Perce, Shoshone, and Sioux--were a part of a multiple time line. Through treaties, the United States took the native peoples' land and forced them into unproductive areas. For the most part, members of the nations had been nomadic hunters who depended on the buffalo as their sustaining force. Then, the buffalo were extensively hunted by whites, and their grazing lands were greatly reduced. From a second multiple time line, spanning from the 1920s to the present, the teacher can ask students to find the reasons for the government's change in policies concerning native peoples.

Summary

Researchers who have studied children's development of time and chronology conclude that these concepts are related to many factors that influence intellectual growth. Such development occurs over time and can be nurtured by a rich learning environment at home and school. Literature experiences, as part of a learning environment that involves interaction with adults and peers, can help children connect with the past.

Children's Books

Children's Experiences in the Past (Picture Books)

Avi. (2003). Silent movie (C. B. Mordan, Illus.). New York: Atheneum.

Barron, T. A. (2004). High as a hawk (T. Lewin, Illus.). New York: Philomel.

Brisson, P. (1998). The summer my father was ten (A. Shine, Illus.). Honesdale, PA: Boyds Mills.

Bunting, E. (1998). So far from the sea (C. K. Soentpiet, Illus.). New York: Clarion.

Cooper, F. (2004). Jump! From the life of Michael Jordan. New York: Philomel.

Di Salvo, D. (2001). A castle on Viola Street. New York: HarperCollins.

Drummond, A. (2003). The flyers. New York: Farrar.

Gibbons, F. (1999). The day the picture man came (S. Meidel, Illus.). New York: Morrow.

Hall, B. E. (2004). Henry and the kite dragon (W. Low, Illus.). New York: Philomel.

Hopkinson, D. (1993). Sweet Clara and the freedom quilt (J. E. Ransome, Illus.). New York: Knopf.

Hopkinson, D. (2001). Under the quilt of night (J. E. Ransome, Illus.). New York: Atheneum.

Hopkinson, D. (2004). Apples to Oregon (N. Carpenter, Illus.). New York: Atheneum.

Hopkinson, D. (2004). A packet of seeds (B. Andersen, Illus.). New York: Greenwillow.

Johnson, A. (2003). I dream of trains (L. Long, Illus.). New York: Simon & Schuster.

Johnston, T. (1985). The quilt story (T. de Paola, Illus.). New York: Putnam.

Lasky, K. (2003). Before I was your mother (L. U. Pham, Illus.). San Diego, CA: Harcourt.

Mora, P. (1997). Tomas and the library lady (R. Colon, Illus.). New York: Knopf.

Park, L. S. (2003). The firekeeper's son (J. Downing, Illus.). New York: Clarion.

Pryor, B. (1992). Lottie's dream (M. Graham, Illus). New York: Simon & Schuster.

Rylant, C. (1985). The relatives came (S. Gammell, Illus.). New York: Bradbury.

Rylant, C. (1997). Silver packages: An Appalachian Christmas story (C. K. Soentpiet, Illus.). New York: Orchard.

Sanders, S. R. (1997). A place called Freedom (T. B. Allen, Illus.). New York: Atheneum.

San Souci, R. (1995). Kate Shelley: Bound for legend (M. Ginsburg, Illus). New York: Dial.

Sigelson, K. L. (2003). Dancing the ring shout! (L. Cohn, Illus.). New York: Hyperion.

Stroud, B. (2005). The patchwork path: A quilt map to freedom (E. S. Bennett, Illus.). Cambridge, MA: Candlewick.

Vander Zee, R. (2004). Mississippi morning (F. Cooper, Illus.). Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans.

Weatherford, C. B. (2005). Freedom on the menu (J. Lagarrigue, Illus.). New York: Dial.

Woodruff, E. (1999). The memory coat (M. Dooling, Illus.). New York: Scholastic.

Yolen, J. (1991). Wings (D. Nolan, Illus.). San Diego, CA: Harcourt.

Children's Experiences From the Past, Based on True Stories (Picture Books)

Aliki. (1998). Marianthe' s story one: Painted words; Marianthe's story two: Spoken memories. New York: Greenwillow.

Barasch, L. (2000). Radio rescue. New York: Frances Foster.

Farris, C. K. (2992). My brother Martin (C. Soentpiet, Illus.). New York: Simon & Schuster.

Fleming, C. (2003). Boxes for Katje (S. Dressen-McQueen, Illus.). New York: Farrar.

Howard, E. (2000). Virgie goes to school with us boys (E. B. Lewis, Illus.). New York: Simon & Schuster.

Martin, J. B. (2003). On Sand Island (D. A. Johnson, Illus.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Polacco, P. (1987). Meteort. New York: Dodd, Mead.

Polacco, P. (1988). The keeping quilt. New York: Simon & Schuster.

Polacco, P. (1990). Thunder cake. New York: Philomel.

Polacco, P. (1992). Chicken Sunday. New York: Philomel.

Polacco, P. (1994). Pink and Say. New York: Philomel.

Polacco, P. (2002). When lightning comes in a jar. New York: Philomel.

Rand, G. (1997). Baby in a basket (T. Rand, Illus.). New York: Dutton.

Rylant, C. (1983). Miss Maggie (T. Di Grazia, Illus.). New York: Dutton.

Stewart, S. (2004). The friend (D. Small, Illus.). New York: Farrar.

Taulbert, C. L. (1999). Little Cliff and the porch people (E. B. Lewis, Illus.). New York: Dial.

Yolen, J. (2003). My brothers' flying machine: Wilbur, Orville, and me. (J. Burke, Illus.). New York: Little, Brown.

Native American-Northern Plains (Picture Books)

Goble, P. (1984). Buffalo woman. Scarsdale, NY: Bradbury.

Goble, P. (1989). Beyond the ridge. New York: Bradbury.

Goble, P. (1990). Dream wolf. New York: Bradbury.

Goble, P. (1992). Crow chief. New York: Orchard.

Goble, P. (1996). The return of the buffaloes. Washington, DC: National Geographic Society.

Goble, P. (1998). The legend of the white buffalo woman. Washington, DC: National Geographic Society.

Goble, P. (2001). Storm maker's tipi. New York: Atheneum.

Children's Experiences Throughout the World During the Second World War

United States--Picture Books

Hall, D. (1994). The farm summer (B. Moser, Illus.). New York: Dial.

Houston, G. (1992). But no candy (L. Bloom, Illus). New York: Philomel.

Stevenson, J. (1992). Don't you know there's a war on? New York: Greenwillow.

United States--Full-Length

Gaeddert, L. B. (2000). Friends and enemies. New York: Atheneum.

Giff, P. R. (1997). Lily's crossing. New York: Delacorte.

Giff, P. R. (2005). Willow Run. New York: Wendy Lamb.

Greene, B. (1973). Summer of my German soldier. New York: Dial.

Hahn, M. D. (1991). Stepping on the cracks. New York: Clarion.

Hesse, K. (2003). The Aleutian sparrow. New York: McElderry.

Kadohata, C. (2006). Weedflower. New York: Simon & Schuster.

Kockenderfer, L. (2002). Victory garden. New York: Delacorte.

Salisbury, G. (1994). Under the blood-red sun. New York: Delacorte.

Salisbury, G. (2006). House of the red fish. New York: Wendy Lamb.

Japanese-Americans--Canada--Full-Length

Garrigue, S. (1994). The eternal spring of Mr. Ito. New York: Maxwell Macmillan.

Japanese-Americans--United States--Full-Length

Deneberg, B. (1999). The journal of Ben Uchida. New York: Scholastic.

Patneaude, D. (2004). Thin walls. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Uchida, Y. (1993). The bracelet. New York: Philomel.

Europe--Picture Books

Hesse, K. (2004). The cats in Krasinski Square (W. Watson, Illus.). New York: Scholastic.

Innocenti, R. (1985). Rose Blanche. Mankato, MN: Creative Education.

Johnston, T. (2004). The harmonica (R. Mazellan, Illus.). Watertown, MA: Charlesbridge.

McCann, M. R. (2003). Luba: The angel of Bergen-Belsen (A. Marshall, Illus.). Berkeley, CA: Tricycle.

Mattingley, C. (1986). The angel with the mouth-organ (A. Lacia, Illus.). New York: Holiday House.

Mochizuki, K. (1997). Passage to freedom (D. Lee, Illus.). New York: Lee & Low.

Ziefert, H. (1986). A new coat for Anna (A. Lobel, Illus.). New York: Knopf.

Europe--Full-length

Ackerman, K. (1994). The night crossing. New York Knopf.

Barth-Grozinger, I. (2006). Something remains. New York Hyperion.

Bunting, E. (1995). Spying on Miss Muller. New York Clarion.

Glatstein, J. (2006). Emil and Karl. New Milford, CT: Roaring Brook Press.

Heneghan, J. (1997). Wish me luck. New York: Farrar.

Lobel, A. (1998). No pretty pictures: A child of war. New York: Greenwillow.

Lowry, L. (1989). Number the stars. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Morpurgo, M. (1990). Waiting for Anna. New York: Viking.

Orlev, U. (1993). Lydia, Queen of Palestine. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Orlev, U. (2003). Run, boy, run. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Reiss, J. (1972). The upstairs room. New York: Crowell.

Schnur, S. (1994). The shadow children. New York: Morrow.

Spinilli, J. (2003). Milkweed. New York: Knopf.

Vos, I. (1995). Dancing on the Bridge of Avignon. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Vos, I. (2000). The key is lost. New York: HarperCollins.

Westall, R. (1991). The kingdom by the sea. New York: Farrar.

Winter, K. (1998). Katarina. New York: Farrar.

Yolen, J. (1990). The devil's arithmetic. New York: Viking.

Asia--Picture Books

Maruki, T. (1980). Hiroshima No Pika. New York: Lothrop.

Morimoto, J. (1990). My Hiroshima. New York: Viking.

Asia--Full-length

Chang, M. S. (1990). In the eye of the war. New York: McElderry.

Park, L. S. (1999). When my name was Keoko. New York: Clarion.

Watson, Y. K. (1986). So far from the Bamboo Grove. New York: Lothrop.

Watson, Y. K. (1994). My brother, my sister, and I. New York: Bradbury.

Community Experiences in the Salem Witchcraft Crisis (Nonfiction and Historical Fiction)

Students' Resources

Aronson, M. (2003). Witch-hunt: Mysteries of the Salem witch trials. New York: Atheneum.

Yolen, J., & Stemple, H. E. Yolen. (2004). The Salem witch trials: An unsolved mystery from history (R. Roth, Illus.). New York: Simon & Schuster.

Teacher's Resource

Norton, M. B. (2002). In the devil's snare: The Salem witchcraft crisis of 1692. New York: Random House.

Historical Fiction

Clapp, P. (1982). Witches' children. New York: Lothrop.

Lasky, K. (1994). Beyond the burning time. New York: Scholastic.

Miller, W. (2000). Tituba (L. Jenkins, Illus.). San Diego, CA: Harcourt.

Petry, A. (1964). Tituba of Salem Village. New York: Crowell.

Rinaldi, A. (1992). A break with Charity: A story about the Salem witch trials. San Diego, CA: Harcourt.

Geographic Settings During the Civil War (Historical Fiction)

Beatty, P. (1984). Turn homeward, Hannalee. New York: Morrow.

Beatty, P. (1987). Charley Skedaddle. New York: Morrow.

Beatty, P. (1991). Jayhawker. New York: Morrow.

Shura, M. F. (1991). Gentle Annie. New York: Scholastic.

Wisler, G. C. (1991). Red Cap. New York: Lodestar.

Native American Nations and Westward Expansion (Nonfiction)

Bial, R. (1999). The Sioux. (Lifeways Series). New York: Marshall Cavendish.

Bial, R. (2001). The Cheyenne. (Lifeways Series). New York: Marshall Cavendish.

Bial, R. (2002). The Nez Perce. (Lifeways Series). New York: Marshall Cavendish.

Bial, R. (2002). The Shoshone. (Lifeways Series). New York: Marshall Cavendish.

Bial, R. (2003). The Mandan. (Lifeways Series). New York: Marshall Cavendish.

References

Almasi, J. F. (1996). A new view of discussion. In L. B. Ganbrell & J. F. Almasi (Eds.), Lively discussions! Fostering engaged reading (pp. 2-24). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

Banks, J. A., & Banks, C. A. (1999). Teaching strategies for the social studies: Decision-making and citizen action (5th ed.). New York: Longman.

Donaldson, M. (1979). Children's minds. New York: Norton.

Gambrell, L. B. (1996). What research reveals about discussion. In L. B. Gambrell & J. F. Almasi (Eds.), Lively discussions! Fostering engaged reading (pp. 25-38). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

Garcia, J., & Michaelis, J. U. (2001). Social studies for children: A guide to basic instruction (12th ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. New York: Basic Books.

Harms, J. M., Lettow, L., Strub, E., & Dale, D. C. (1992). Russia. Book Links, 1(4), 36-44.

Inhelder, B., & Piaget, J. (1962). The growth of logical thinking. New York: Basic Books.

National Council for the Social Studies. (1994). Expectations of excellence: Curriculum standards for social studies. (Bulletin No. 89). Washington, DC: Author.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1962). Thought and language. Cambridge, MA: M.I.T. Press.

Wadsworth, B.J. (1996). Piaget's theory of cognitive and affective development. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

Yolen, J. (1981). Touch magic. New York: Philomel.

Jeanne McLain Harms is Professor Emeritus, College of Education, and Lucille J. Lettow is Professor and Youth Collection Librarian, Rod Library, University of Northern Iowa, Cedar Falls.

Figure 1
Shifts in Time Fantasy

                                           Magical
                 Character in              Transition
                 the Present               to the Past

Bosse,           An orphaned boy,          Follows a rabbit
Malcolm.         Ben, resents              into ancient
Cave Beyond      having to accompany       times after
Time (Harper     his uncle, who is an      being bitten by
& Row, 1980)     archaeologist, on a       a snake
                 dig in Arizona. The
                 boy does not
                 understand the
                 relevancy of the
                 study of ancient
                 cultures.

Bond, Nancy.     Peter has a difficult     Discovers a
A String in      adjustment after his      harp key
the Harp         mother's death, and
(Atheneum,       then being uprooted
1976             from his life at
                 Amherst when his
                 father takes a
                 university teaching
                 job in Wales.

Wiseman,         A boy, Matthew            Becomes intrigued
David.           Clemons, has trouble      by the cemetery
Jeremy Visick    with a school             headstone that
(Houghton        assignment of             reads "And to
Mifflin, 1981)   writing about the         Jeremy Visick,
                 past, which he finds      His Son, Age
                 meaningless.              12, Whose Body
                                           Still Lies in
                                           Wheal Maid"

Hurmence,        An African American       Acquires an
Belinda. A       girl, Blanche Overtha     amulet
Girl Called      Yancey, whose initials
Boy (Ticknor     spell B.O.Y, returns
& Fields,        with her immediate
1982             family for a family
                 reunion. It is held
                 where their ancestors
                 lived as slaves. She
                 is  impatient with her
                 relatives' discussion
                 of slavery experiences
                 in the South.

Lunn,            The girl, Rose, is        Opens a cave
Janet. The       lonely after her          door
Root Cellar      grandmother with whom
(Scribner,       she lived dies, and
1983             she is sent to live
                 with an aunt and uncle.

Park, Ruth.      The girl, Abigail, is     Follows a waif
Playing Beatie   angry with her father     down an alley
Bow (Nelson,     for leaving the family.
1980             Then, she becomes
                 furious with both
                 parents when she
                 discovers  that they
                 are attempting to
                 reconcile without
                 consulting her.

Yolen, Jane.     As the girl, Hannah,      Hannah enacts the
The Devil's      prepares to celebrate     tradition of
Arithmetic       Passover with her         opening the door
(Viking,         family, she finds         to the prophet
1988             their discussion          Elijah on
                 of the Holocaust          Passover
                 tiresome.

                 Historical Period Covered and
                 Resolution of Character's Issue

Bosse,           Ancient Times
Malcolm.         Ben journeys back in time
Cave Beyond      to associate with people of three
Time (Harper     different ancient cultures--nomad,
& Row, 1980)     hunter, and agrarian. From these
                 experiences, he comes to appreciate
                 the cultural study of the distant past.

Bond, Nancy.     6th Century in Wales
A String in      Peter, through the ancient harp key
the Harp         that had belonged to the bard Taliesin,
(Atheneum,       is drawn into the replaying of his
1976             life and Welsh traditions. Peter is
                 finally  able to return the key to its
                 rightful place and to bond in a
                 satisfying way with his family.

Wiseman,         1852 England
David.           Matthew is led into an abandoned mine,
Jeremy Visick    the Wheal Maid, in search of Jeremy
(Houghton        Visick, a victim of the mining disaster
Mifflin, 1981)   of 1852. He learns of how many children
                 were forced into labor in 19th century
                 England. From this experience, Matthew
                 finds an interesting topic to research
                 for a school report.

Hurmence,        Slavery Era in the Southern United States
Belinda. A       The girl character meets a boy who is a
Girl Called      runaway slave, and is protected by field
Boy (Ticknor     slaves in their quarters. She witnesses the
& Fields,        consequences of the slaves' deprivations.
1982             She comes to understand why the slaves did
                 not rebel against their masters. The
                 power of the amulet returns her to the
                 present.

Lunn,            Civil War Period
Janet. The       Rose makes friends with Susan and Will.
Root Cellar      When Will does not return from the Civil
(Scribner,       War, Rose and Susan set out to find him.
1983             As a result of their ordeal, Rose discovers
                 that she has strengths that will serve her
                 well when she returns to contemporary
                 times.

Park, Ruth.      1870s in Australia
Playing Beatie   Transported to Victorian times, Abigail
Bow (Nelson,     finds a girl, Beatie Bow, who mirrors her
1980             image-headstrong and determined. After
                 Abigail works out her issues, she finds the
                 antique crochetwork that she wore on her
                 dress, and Beatie Bow leads her back to
                 contemporary times.

Yolen, Jane.     World War II
The Devil's      Hannah finds herself in a concentration
Arithmetic       camp and experiences the brutality of
(Viking,         such an experience. Then, she comes to
1988             understand the reasons for her family's
                 sorrowful remembrance of their past.

Figure 2
George Washington Carver

Birth
  1864   Born into slavery on a Missouri farm. Owned by Moses and Susan
         Carver, who taught him to read and write.

Initial Education
  1877   Attended elementary school for black children
  1883   Attended high school in Minneapolis, Kansas
  1884   Denied admission, because of his race, to Highland College,
         Highland, Kansas

Adult Life-Time Commitment
College Education
  1891   Attended Iowa State Agricultural College, Ames, Iowa
  1894   Received B.A. degree from Iowa State
  1896   Completed M.A. degree at Iowa State
College  Teaching: Professor of Agriculture
  1896   Invited by Booker T. Washington to join the faculty of
         Tuskegee Institute
Research: Researcher of Agricultural Crops
  1896   Started School of Agriculture and became the first black
         director of a USDA Agricultural Experiment Station.
         Concentrated on soil conservation and ways to improve crop
         production, and distributed his knowledge to farmers
  1910   Became head of Tuskegee's newly created Department of Research
  1914   Focused research on the uses of peanuts to replace cotton as a
         crop as well as products from other crops
Consultant for the Improvement of Agriculture
  1920s  Worked to improve race relations through Commission on
         Inter-Racial Cooperation and YMCA
  1921   Gave lecture to Congress on uses of peanuts
  1923   Received Spingarn Medal for Distinguished Service to Science
  1933   Lectured on crops throughout the South
  1941   George Washington Carver Museum is dedicated in his honor

Death
1943 Died in Tuskegee, Alabama