Not for the Faint of Heart.

The development of democratic voting in open and free elections has a turbulent history in Canada

Early elections in Canada could be pretty rough and tumble affairs, marked by violence and corruption. Only a small minority of people had the right to vote, and it seems their ballot was for sale - people who voted "right" could be rewarded with cash, free drinks, a government position, or a grant of land.

In the 19th century, voting was done in the open; you stood in the crowd and raised your hand in favour of the candidate you supported. It was not unknown to have a few heavies cruising the crowd to persuade people to vote in favour of this or that candidate.

Over the centuries, as Britain established colonies throughout the world, it developed colonial governments similar to its own. So, in early Canada, the government consisted of the Governor, a Legislative Council, and Executive Council (cabinet) both appointed by the Governor, and an elected Legislative Assembly. The Governor chose his colonial advisors from the wealthier landowners, merchants, and traders and, in Lower Canada, Catholic leaders and landowners.

The Assembly was elected to represent the interests of the people as a whole. It was made up of the middle class of small businessmen, professional classes such as lawyers, artisans, and small landowners. The power of the Assembly was limited because the Governor could veto (throw out) its decisions (in one year there were 40 vetoes). The Governor also appointed civil servants, set riding boundaries (to favour his supporters), controlled government spending, and made grants of land.

The first Assembly elected in present-day Canada was in Nova Scotia in 1758. Voters had to own land, and they had to take an oath of loyalty. There was one member for every 25 voters.

By the Constitutional Act 1791, assemblies were to be elected in both Upper Canada and Lower Canada. Voters and candidates had to be at least 21 years old, they had to be either a born or naturalized subject, and they had to own a certain amount of property. These limitations left many people, such as labourers, without the vote.

Holding elected office was also limited by the fact that members were not paid and many people, especially from rural areas, could not afford the cost of travelling nor the time off work.

Elections in early days differed from those of today in three major ways: they were held over several days, even weeks; different constituencies voted at different times, which meant later elections could be influenced by early results; and, "open ballot" voting versus today's secret ballot.

Manipulation and corruption in elections were so common that bribery and intimidation were more or less accepted parts of political campaigning. In 1800, for example, York held its first election for the Assembly. The official in charge simply closed the election when the candidate he favoured moved two votes ahead on the second day of voting. The 1832 election in Montreal-West was a bloody affair, which lasted from 25 April to 21 May, when soldiers fired on demonstrators and killed three Canadians. In 1836, Sir Francis Bond Head dissolved the Reform-controlled Assembly and personally entered the campaign. He quickly gave the vote to new British immigrants, and set up polling sites in places that were convenient to his followers but not to his opponents. That brought on more violence with Reformers being clubbed. Not surprisingly, Bond Head was successful, and, after the election, people who had voted Reform were persecuted.

In 1837-38, "rebellions" in both Upper Canada and Lower Canada were put down. More than 1,000 rebels were imprisoned or deported and 11 were hanged. Britain sent Lord Durham to Canada to find out the cause of the unrest. He made a few suggestions. For one, he said the country needed to establish responsible government with a more powerful Assembly, and that the Executive Council and Prime Minister should be appointed by the Assembly. That happened in New Brunswick in 1848. The following year, it reached Canada when Lord Elgin, although he was personally opposed, signed the Rebellion Losses Bill. The Bill paid anyone, including rebels, for their losses in the uprisings of 1837. The Tories were actively opposed, rioted in Montreal, stoned Elgin's carriage, and burned the Parliament buildings.

Open balloting, with all its faults, continued. It wasn't until 1874 that Ottawa passed an act introducing the secret ballot. The process was first used in the federal election of 1878. When public nominations were abolished, the country's elections were also held on the same day, charges of corruption were referred to a judge instead of Parliament, and candidates had to file a statement of expenses within four months of the vote.

But, women still had a fight on their hands. Some provinces had allowed women with property to vote, but, by 1855, they all were barred. Manitoba was the first to give the vote back to them in 1916, followed soon by the other provinces. Quebec was the last, in 1940.

At the federal level, women won the right to vote in 1918, although female members of the armed forces and female relatives of soldiers had been allowed to vote in the election of 1917. In 1949, East Indian, Chinese, and Japanese citizens were given the vote. In 1950, this right was extended to the Inuit, but not until 1960 did it include all Native peoples. In Quebec, Native women had to wait until 1968 for the vote.

SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES:

1. While early elections in Canada were rife with corruption, discuss whether today's elections are really much different. Tip: check out the Human Resources Development or the Ontario Realty Corporation scandals of 2000.

2. Consider your Student Council elections. What effect would it have if ballots were not secret? What might happen if one member had veto power over the decisions of the rest of the Student Council? Discuss.

POWER IN NUMBERS 

In the election of 1872, Sir George-Etienne Cartier was defeated in his Quebec riding. Prime Minister Sir John A. Macdonald offered Cartier the safe seat of Provencher in Manitoba. It was arranged that nobody would oppose Cartier and he was declared elected by acclamation without even visiting the riding. The voters in Provencher were not impressed; they attacked and damaged a polling booth and the offices of two newspapers. Ottawa's special commissioner Donald A. Smith attempted to calm the mob down but they pelted him with clumps of mud.

FACT FILE

Switzerland's seven million people love to vote: they vote in referendums an average of three times a year, accounting for about half of the referendum ballots worldwide.