Non-erotic thoughts: content and relation to sexual functioning and sexual satisfaction.The development and persistence of sexual problems is not well-understood, even though the rate of sexual difficulties within the general population is very high and may be associated with psychological and relationship problems. In a survey of a large representative sample (n = 1,410 men, n = 1,749 women), Laumann, Paik, and Rosen (1999) found 43% of women and 31% of men reported some form of sexual problem with at least one partner in the previous one-year period. Difficulties in sexual functioning are associated with other problems, such as being less happy (Laumann, Gagnon, Michael, & Michaels, 1994), having poorer self-esteem and sense of well-being (Heiman, 2002), and experiencing marital distress (e.g., Bartlik & Goldberg, 2000; Pridal & LoPiccolo, 2000). Masters and Johnson Masters and Johnson, pioneering research team in the field of human sexuality, consisting of the gynecologist William Howell Masters, 1915–2001, b. Cleveland, and the psychologist Virginia Eshelman Johnson, 1925–, b. (1966, 1970) proposed that a key factor in sexual dysfunction sexual dysfunction Inability to experience arousal or achieve sexual satisfaction under ordinary circumstances, as a result of psychological or physiological problems. is "spectatoring," or mentally stepping outside of oneself during sexual activity with a partner and monitoring one's own sexual performance. When people monitor and judge their sexual performance, they are not attending to what is pleasurable pleas·ur·a·ble adj. Agreeable; gratifying. pleas  ur·a·bil and
enjoyable about the activity. As such, it is difficult to achieve and
maintain sexual arousal sexual arousal Horny/horniness, randy/randiness Physiology A state of sexual 'yellow alert' which has a mental component–↑ cortical responsiveness to sensory stimulation, and physical component–↑ penile sensitivity, neural response to stimuli, and desire, and anxiety and heightened
performance monitoring may result. Performance concerns, which trigger
spectatoring, thus become self-fulfilling prophecies self-fulfilling prophecy, a concept developed by Robert K. Merton to explain how a belief or expectation, whether correct or not, affects the outcome of a situation or the way a person (or group) will behave. .Barlow bar·low n. An inexpensive, one- or two-bladed pocketknife. [After Barlow, the family name of its makers, two brothers in Sheffield, England.] also implicated im·pli·cate tr.v. im·pli·cat·ed, im·pli·cat·ing, im·pli·cates 1. To involve or connect intimately or incriminatingly: evidence that implicates others in the plot. 2. spectatoring as a key factor in the development and persistence of sexual dysfunction (Barlow, 1986; Sbrocco & Barlow, 1996). His model proposed that people with sexual dysfunctions may have uncompromising, negative schema about sex (e.g., "A real man can have an erection erection /erec·tion/ (e-rek´shun) the condition of being rigid and elevated, as erectile tissue when filled with blood. e·rec·tion n. 1. whenever, wherever") that derive from cultural myths and misconceptions Misconceptions is an American sitcom television series for The WB Network for the 2005-2006 season that never aired. It features Jane Leeves, formerly of Frasier, and French Stewart, formerly of 3rd Rock From the Sun. about sex and from a general negative orientation to sexual cues. Schema that equate e·quate v. e·quat·ed, e·quat·ing, e·quates v.tr. 1. To make equal or equivalent. 2. To reduce to a standard or an average; equalize. 3. sexual performance with gender identity can readily generate anxiety-evoking thoughts or spectatoring, in sexual situations (e.g., "If I lose my erection I'm not a real man! My partner will be understandably insulted!"). Sexual activity becomes an anxiety-evoking test of manhood MANHOOD. The ceremony of doing homage by the vassal to his lord was denominated homagium or manhood, by the feudists. The formula used was devenio vester homo, I become you Com. 54. See Homage. . Anxiety makes the person hyper-vigilant for information that performance is wanting and creates negative biases in information processing information processing: see data processing. information processing Acquisition, recording, organization, retrieval, display, and dissemination of information. Today the term usually refers to computer-based operations. , so neutral or ambiguous events are interpreted as signifying Signifyin' (slang) is an African-American rhetorical device featuring indirect communication or persuasion and the creating of new meanings for old words and signs. Signifying, in this sense, includes repetition and difference, implication and association, combining words and performance failure. This anxiety and the mental processing to which it gives rise distracts the individual from the pleasurable and arousing aspects of the situation, which makes it more difficult to stay aroused, increasing anxiety further. Corrective action A corrective action is a change implemented to address a weakness identified in a management system. Normally corrective actions are instigated in response to a customer complaint, abnormal levels if internal nonconformity, nonconformities identified during an internal audit or , such as the use of sexual fantasy sexual fantasy Psychology Private mental imagery associated with explicitly erotic feelings, accompanied by physiologic response to sexual arousal. See Sexual desire. , is then required to recover sexual functioning. However, if the person does not believe that ameliorative a·mel·io·rate tr. & intr.v. a·me·lio·rat·ed, a·me·lio·rat·ing, a·me·lio·rates To make or become better; improve. See Synonyms at improve. [Alteration of meliorate. actions should be necessary or believes that they will not work, corrective action is unlikely to be initiated. As feelings of hopelessness over improving the situation grow, the person will become mentally disengaged dis·en·gage v. dis·en·gaged, dis·en·gag·ing, dis·en·gag·es v.tr. 1. To release from something that holds fast, connects, or entangles. See Synonyms at extricate. 2. with the sexual activity and will eventually disengage dis·en·gage v. dis·en·gaged, dis·en·gag·ing, dis·en·gag·es v.tr. 1. To release from something that holds fast, connects, or entangles. See Synonyms at extricate. 2. from the situation physically (i.e., will terminate the sexual activity). After a series of failures, the individual will make negative predictions with greater certainty, disengagement disengagement /dis·en·gage·ment/ (dis?en-gaj´ment) emergence of the fetus from the vaginal canal. dis·en·gage·ment n. will happen sooner, and use of corrective strategies becomes even less likely. Barlow's model is compelling because it explains consistent research findings regarding the sexual response of men with and without erectile dysfunction Erectile Dysfunction Definition Erectile dysfunction (ED), formerly known as impotence, is the inability to achieve or maintain an erection long enough to engage in sexual intercourse. (Sbrocco & Barlow, 1996). It is also compatible with the treatment approach of Masters and Johnson (1966, 1970), which is known to be effective. However, the model infers that spectatoring, in the form of performance concerns, drives the problems with erectile erectile /erec·tile/ (e-rek´til) capable of erection. e·rec·tile adj. 1. Of or relating to tissue capable of filling with blood and becoming rigid. 2. functioning in men. To date, there has been no empirical investigation of the content of thoughts men experience when under pressure to obtain an erection (e.g., by threat of electric shock), so whether performance concerns actually drive the problem has not been examined. Furthermore, the model has not been well-tested on women. Yet, women may not experience performance concerns in sexual situations to the same degree as men. When a woman's sexual arousal wanes, it is not as salient or as disruptive to intercourse as when a man's sexual arousal wanes, and the woman's partner may not notice. This is consistent with some studies suggesting performance pressure does not impede im·pede tr.v. im·ped·ed, im·ped·ing, im·pedes To retard or obstruct the progress of. See Synonyms at hinder1. [Latin imped genital genital /gen·i·tal/ (jen´i-t'l) 1. pertaining to reproduction, or to the reproductive organs. 2. (in the plural) the reproductive organs. gen·i·tal adj. 1. arousal arousal /arous·al/ (ah-rou´z'l) 1. a state of responsiveness to sensory stimulation or excitability. 2. the act or state of waking from or as if from sleep. 3. in women (e.g., Laan, Everaerd, van Aanhold, & Rebel, 1993; see Anderson & Cyranowski, 1994, for a review) and with the finding that women are more likely to report desire difficulties as opposed to anxiety about sexual performance (Laumann et a1.,1995). Secondly, in Western societies there is a double standard regarding sexuality such that it is desirable for men, but not women, to be sexually experienced and expressive (Hynie & Lydon, 1995; Hynie, Lydon, & Taradash, 1997; Muehlenhard & McCoy, 1991). As a result, women are less likely to feel pressure to appear sexually experienced and skilled. However, they may still be self-conscious in sexual situations because they are attempting to regulate their sexual behavior sexual behavior A person's sexual practices–ie, whether he/she engages in heterosexual or homosexual activity. See Sex life, Sexual life. so as to appear interested and responsive without appearing overly skilled or expressive. This could lead to performance monitoring of sexual behavior, but not necessarily of arousal. Few studies have examined thoughts associated with impaired sexual functioning. Faith and Schare (1993) assumed that body image concerns would evoke e·voke tr.v. e·voked, e·vok·ing, e·vokes 1. To summon or call forth: actions that evoked our mistrust. 2. the same kind of performance concerns that typify spectatoring and cognitive interference in women. They examined scores on the Body Image Scale in relation to avoidance of sexual activity in women while controlling for sexual attitudes, knowledge, and overall adjustment. They found that greater body image concerns were associated with more avoidance of sexual activity. Trapnell, Meston, and Gorzalka (1997) proposed that a positive body image could lead to self-focus during sexual situations, but would result in the enhancement of the experience rather than sexual anxiety. They conducted a study similar to that of Faith and Schare, but examined the role of positive self-image in sexual experience. As expected, poor body image was associated with less sexual experience, but positive self-image mediated me·di·ate v. me·di·at·ed, me·di·at·ing, me·di·ates v.tr. 1. To resolve or settle (differences) by working with all the conflicting parties: this relationship. Thus, the valence Valence, city, France Valence (väläNs`), city (1990 pop. 65,026), capital of Drôme dept., SE France, in Dauphiné, on the Rhône River. of self-focused attention is important to its impact on sexual functioning. Purdon and Telford (1999) noted that previous studies did not examine whether body focus took place during sexual situations and did not measure sexual functioning itself, but rather, inferred it from sexual experience. In their study, male and female undergraduates were presented with a list of "unattractive" bodily features. Participants indicated which features they perceived themselves to have. They then rated the extent to which they were conscious of each of those features in recent sexual situations and the impact of that self-consciousness on their sexual arousal and enjoyment of the sexual situation. Finally, they rated the extent to which they modified their behavior or the situation in some way to compensate for the "unattractive" feature. Women reported higher numbers of "unattractive" body features and engaged in more strategies to compensate for them, but men and women reported equal impairment Impairment 1. A reduction in a company's stated capital. 2. The total capital that is less than the par value of the company's capital stock. Notes: 1. This is usually reduced because of poorly estimated losses or gains. 2. in arousal and enjoyment as a result of self-consciousness over these features. Impairment in arousal/enjoyment predicted greater sexual dysfunction in women, but not men, controlling for mood, public/private self-consciousness, and sexual satisfaction, whereas greater numbers of "unattractive" features predicted poorer sexual satisfaction for men. These data suggest that although men may feel self-conscious of their bodies in sexual situations and perceive this self-consciousness to impede enjoyment of sexual situations, their self-consciousness does not impair im·pair tr.v. im·paired, im·pair·ing, im·pairs To cause to diminish, as in strength, value, or quality: an injury that impaired my hearing; a severe storm impairing communications. their functioning. For women, body self-consciousness does impair functioning. Self-consciousness over "unattractive" features is an important source of sexual anxiety for men and women, but men may be especially good at recovering arousal when they are distracted by them, as compared to women. In a similar study, Dove and Wiederman (2000) developed a measure of cognitive interference in which undergraduate women were asked to reflect back upon a recent sexual experience and report on the extent to which they felt self-conscious about their bodies or experienced concerns about their sexual performance. Appearance concerns and performance concerns were highly correlated cor·re·late v. cor·re·lat·ed, cor·re·lat·ing, cor·re·lates v.tr. 1. To put or bring into causal, complementary, parallel, or reciprocal relation. 2. , and cognitive interference emerged as a significant predictor of sexual esteem, orgasm orgasm /or·gasm/ (or´gazm) the apex and culmination of sexual excitement.orgas´mic or·gasm n. consistency, pretending orgasm, and sexual satisfaction (controlling for general affect, sexual desire, general self-focus, sexual attitudes, and body dissatisfaction). These data support the relationship between spectatoring and sexual functioning and seem to suggest that women experience performance concerns. Yet the items assessing performance could be reflecting concerns about sexual behavior rather than performance. For example, "Thoughts about whether my actions are satisfying distract me" could be endorsed because the person thinks, "If my partner likes what I'm doing, he may think I'm experienced and have been promiscuous." No study to date has examined the range of content of thoughts that detract from detract from verb 1. lessen, reduce, diminish, lower, take away from, derogate, devaluate << OPPOSITE enhance verb 2. enjoyment of sexual situations in men and women. The purpose of this study was to use an open-ended format to elicit e·lic·it tr.v. e·lic·it·ed, e·lic·it·ing, e·lic·its 1. a. To bring or draw out (something latent); educe. b. To arrive at (a truth, for example) by logic. 2. the range of non-erotic, or spectatoring, thoughts that men and women report and to examine the relationship of those thoughts to sexual attitudes, sexual satisfaction, and sexual functioning. We predicted that men and women would report experiencing a range of non-erotic thoughts, including performance concerns. We also hypothesized that frequency of and anxiety associated with non-erotic thoughts would be associated with sexual attitudes and would predict sexual satisfaction and functioning in men and women. METHOD Participants The sample consisted of 97 introductory psychology students (50 females, 47 males) who received course credit for participation. Two inclusion criteria
Inclusion criteria are a set of conditions that must be met in order to participate in a clinical trial. were imposed. First, participants had to be under the age of 25, because those in an introductory psychology class over the age of 25 may be different in important ways from the main sample (e.g., in terms of marital status marital status, n the legal standing of a person in regard to his or her marriage state. , length of relationships). Second, to ensure that participants reported on fairly recent experiences, participants were selected on the basis that they had engaged in sexual intercourse sexual intercourse or coitus or copulation Act in which the male reproductive organ enters the female reproductive tract (see reproductive system). at least once during the three months prior to the study. Of the 101 participants initially contacted for the study, four were excluded on the basis of age. Participants' mean age was 20 (SD = 1.5), and they were almost exclusively Caucasian. No data on sexual orientation sexual orientation n. The direction of one's sexual interest toward members of the same, opposite, or both sexes, especially a direction seen to be dictated by physiologic rather than sociologic forces. or partner's gender were collected. However, data collected at about the same time from the same participant pool found that less than 1% reported having a sexual partner of the same gender. Materials Background questionnaire. This questionnaire was developed for use in the current study. Respondents reported on their gender, age, sexual history (age at first intercourse, number of sexual partners), length of current relationship, and sexual abuse history (assessed by one item, "Have you ever been coerced into a sexual act or were you sexually abused as a child?"). Non-Erotic Thought Content Questionnaire (NETC NETC Naval Education & Training Command (formerly Chief of Naval Education and Training, CNET) NETC Naval Education & Training Center NETC New England Theatre Conference NETC Network Enterprise Technology Command ). This measure was developed for the current study to assess the range of content of thoughts experienced by men and women during sexual situations that detract from their enjoyment of that situation. The format of the NETC was based on that of the Interpretation of Intrusions Inventory (III) and the Obsessive ob·ses·sive adj. Of, characteristic of, or causing an obsession. ob·ses  sive n. Beliefs Questionnaire (OBQ OBQ On Board QuantityOBQ Ossa Bene Quiescant (Latin: The Bones Rest Well, epigraphy) ; Obsessive Compulsive com·pul·sive adj. Caused or conditioned by compulsion or obsession. n. A person with behavior patterns governed by a compulsion. compulsive the state of being subject to compulsion. Cognitions Working Group, 1997), two measures of appraisal of obsessional thoughts. The III and OBQ provide a definition of obsessions and then list examples of such thoughts. The NETC instructions are presented in the Appendix. In brief, participants are instructed that it is common for individuals to experience thoughts during sexual situations that detract from their enjoyment of the experience, and several examples are listed. These examples were derived from informal discussions with undergraduates and associates affiliated with our research lab. The NETC then instructs respondents to think back to their most recent sexual experiences with a partner and identify any thoughts that had detracted from their enjoyment of the experience (i.e., their sexual experience would have been better if they had not had the thought). They are then asked to record each thought verbatim ver·ba·tim adj. Using exactly the same words; corresponding word for word: a verbatim report of the conversation. adv. in spaces provided. Twelve spaces are provided, but participants are informed that 12 is an arbitrary number, and that they may have more or less than that number to record. Participants use 7-point Likert scales Likert scale A subjective scoring system that allows a person being surveyed to quantify likes and preferences on a 5-point scale, with 1 being the least important, relevant, interesting, most ho-hum, or other, and 5 being most excellent, yeehah important, etc to rate each thought on how frequently it occurred in sexual situations, from 1 (rarely) to 7 (always), and how much anxiety it caused, from 1 (no anxiety) to 7 (extreme anxiety). Participants are also instructed to proceed to the next questionnaire in the packet if they have had no distracting dis·tract tr.v. dis·tract·ed, dis·tract·ing, dis·tracts 1. To cause to turn away from the original focus of attention or interest; divert. 2. To pull in conflicting emotional directions; unsettle. thoughts. Sexual Functioning Questionnaire (SFQ SFQ Stochastic Fair Queuing SFQ Single-Flux Quantum SFQ State Farm Quintus SFQ Standard First Quality ). This 10-item questionnaire was developed by Lawrance and Byers (1992) to assess the frequency with which individuals experience sexual concerns and difficulties. The measure was based on a questionnaire that assesses sexual concerns and problems in a non-clinical population (Frank, Anderson, & Rubenstein, 1978). Eight items assess problems with desire, excitement, and orgasm, and two items assess problems with inconsistencies between one's own and one's partner's preferred sexual activities. A list of the 12 difficulties is provided, and respondents rate how frequently they experienced each difficulty in the preceding year using 5-point Likert scales, from 1 (never) to 5 (always). Examples of the concerns and difficulties include, "I have trouble getting sexually excited," "I am not interested in sex," and "A sexual partner asked me to do sexual things that I did not like to do." The SFQ has good psychometric psy·cho·met·rics n. (used with a sing. verb) The branch of psychology that deals with the design, administration, and interpretation of quantitative tests for the measurement of psychological variables such as intelligence, aptitude, and properties (Lawrance & Byers, 1995; MacNeil & Byers, 1997). Scores on this measure can range from 0-40, with higher scores indicating poorer sexual functioning. The internal consistency In statistics and research, internal consistency is a measure based on the correlations between different items on the same test (or the same subscale on a larger test). It measures whether several items that propose to measure the same general construct produce similar scores. in this sample was acceptable (Cronbach's alpha Cronbach's  (alpha) has an important use as a measure of the reliability of a psychometric instrument. It was first named as alpha by Cronbach (1951), as he had intended to continue with further instruments. = .68)Global Measure of Sexual Satisfaction--Revised (GMSEX). This questionnaire was developed by Lawrance and Byers (1995) to assess the extent to which individuals are subjectively satisfied with their sexual experiences. Respondents are presented with five pairs of opposites (e.g., very good-very bad, very valuable-worthless) that anchor a 7-point Likert scale, and respondents circle the number that best describes their sex life. Higher scores indicate greater sexual satisfaction. The GMSEX has good psychometric properties (Lawrance & Byers, 1995). Scores range from 5-35, with higher scores indicating greater sexual satisfaction. In the current sample the internal consistency was excellent (Cronbach's alpha = .91). Sexual Opinion Survey (SOS SOS, code letters of the international distress signal. The signal is expressed in International Morse code as … — — — … (three dots, three dashes, three dots). ). This 21-item self-report measure was developed by Fisher, Byrne, White, and Kelley (1988) to assess attitudinal orientation to sexual stimuli, ranging from a very negative attitude towards sex and sexual cues (erotophobia) to a very positive attitude toward sex and sexual cues (erotophilia). Sample items include, "Watching a stripper Stripper Slang for an individual homeowner who strips the equity out of his or her home through mortgage refinancing. Proceeds are generally not re-invested, but spent on consumer goods. Notes: Most people get rich by saving and investing wisely. of the opposite sex would not be very exciting," "Masturbation masturbation Erotic stimulation of one's own genital organs, usually to achieve orgasm. Masturbatory behavior is common in infants and adolescents, and is indulged in by many adults as well. Studies indicate that over 90% of U.S. males and 60–80% of U.S. can be an exciting experience," and "I do not enjoy daydreaming about sexual matters." Respondents rate each item on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The SOS has good psychometric properties (Fisher et al., 1988). Scores on this measure range from 0-126, with higher scores indicating greater erotophilia (note that the final score is calculated by subtracting the sum of one set of items from another and adding 67). The internal consistency of the measure in this sample was acceptable (Cronbach's alpha = .75). Procedure Eligible participants were contacted by telephone and invited to participate in a study of sexual attitudes and behavior. Sessions were run in small groups in a quiet room. Participants were seated at desks featuring privacy barriers. They completed an information and consent form and received their credit for participation. The consent form emphasized that participants could skip questions they felt uncomfortable answering and that they could discontinue dis·con·tin·ue v. dis·con·tin·ued, dis·con·tin·u·ing, dis·con·tin·ues v.tr. 1. To stop doing or providing (something); end or abandon: participation at any time with no consequences. Their signed consent form was then placed in a large envelope with the other consent forms. Participants were administered the self-report questionnaires in the following order: background questionnaire, NETC, SFQ, GMSEX, and SOS. This order was chosen to ensure that participants' responses on the NETC were not influenced by items on the other measures of sexuality. Upon completion of the questionnaire packet, participants placed the booklet in a plain envelope, sealed it, and placed it in a large box containing envelopes from other participants. Participants were then given a feedback letter. The open-ended information provided on the NETC by the sample was then coded for content. First, a list of the 345 thoughts reported in total by participants was compiled and distributed to the five members of our research lab, including the first and second authors and three doctoral-level students. Each member of the lab was instructed to develop as many content categories as necessary to represent the diversity of thoughts while being as parsimonious par·si·mo·ni·ous adj. Excessively sparing or frugal. par si·mo as possible. All
members then met and achieved a consensus on the appropriate number and
labels ofcategories for the thoughts. Members agreed upon Adj. 1. agreed upon - constituted or contracted by stipulation or agreement; "stipulatory obligations" stipulatory noncontroversial, uncontroversial - not likely to arouse controversy nine categories. These included (1) Intrusion, concerns about being interrupted or overheard while engaging in sexual activity; (2) Body Concerns, concerns about one's appearance or body odors body odor A malodorous body scent. Cf Flatulance, Halitosis. ; (3) Sexually Transmitted Infections/Pregnancy; (4) Emotional/Relationship, thoughts about the quality of the relationship; (5) Morality/Guilt/Regret, concerns that what one is doing is wrong; (6) Dislike of the Sexual Activity; (7) Distracting Thoughts, thoughts about work, school; (8) Thoughts of Others, fantasies of sexual interactions with others, thoughts about one's ex-partners, and thoughts about a partner's previous partners; and (9) Performance, concerns about own or partner's sexual performance. Each member then independently categorized cat·e·go·rize tr.v. cat·e·go·rized, cat·e·go·riz·ing, cat·e·go·riz·es To put into a category or categories; classify. cat each thought into one of the nine categories. If less than four members agreed on the categorization, further discussion ensued until consensus was reached. If no consensus was reached, the thought was rated as uncodeable. Only two of the thoughts (1%) could not be coded for this reason. Thoughts that clearly straddled two categories were also rated as non-codeable. Examples include, "Is she happy?," which could be categorized in Performance-related or Emotional/Relationship-related. Other uncodeable thoughts included content from more than one category (e.g., "What am I doing? This is so wrong. Did I take my pill? I hope the condom 1. condom - The protective plastic bag that accompanies 3.5-inch microfloppy diskettes. Rarely, also used of (paper) disk envelopes. Unlike the write protect tab, the condom (when left on) not only impedes the practice of SEX but has also been shown to have a high failure doesn't break!"). RESULTS Seven females and one male reported a history of sexual abuse. These participants were excluded from further analyses as they may experience non-erotic thoughts representative of a post-traumatic reaction rather than of sexual dysfunction. This left a final sample of 89 for the remaining analyses. Men reported a mean age of first intercourse of 17.50 years (SD = 1.52) and women reported a mean age of first intercourse of 16.94 years (SD = 1.18), t(1, 87) = -1.93, p < .06. There were no other differences in men's and women's sexual and relationship histories. The mean number of sexual partners for the sample was 3.29 (SD = 5.08). Sixty-nine of the 89 participants were in a relationship (n = 35 women, n = 34 men); the mean length was 21.04 months (SD = 17.07). Twenty of the participants (n = 8 women, n = 12 men) were not in a relationship at the time of the study. Participants who were in a relationship reported greater sexual satisfaction (M = 29.88, SD = 4.62) than those who were not in a relationship (M = 23.90, SD = 4.46), t(1, 87) = 5.14, p < .001 (higher scores on this measure reflect higher sexual satisfaction). However, there were no differences in sexual functioning across groups (M = 9.97, SD = 4.66 and M = 9.40, SD = 5.10) for those in and not in a relationship, respectively, t(1, 89) = 0.47, p = .64. Preliminary Analyses Gender differences on sexual satisfaction, functioning and attitudes scores were assessed in a multivariate analysis multivariate analysis, n a statistical approach used to evaluate multiple variables. multivariate analysis, n a set of techniques used when variation in several variables has to be studied simultaneously. of variance. Means and standard deviations In statistics, the average amount a number varies from the average number in a series of numbers. (statistics) standard deviation - (SD) A measure of the range of values in a set of numbers. of the scores on these measures by men and women are presented on Table 1. There was a significant gender difference (F[1, 87] = 4.15, p < .009). Interpretation of the discriminant function discriminant function n. Statistics A function of a set of variables used to classify an object or event. loadings indicated that this difference was primarily driven by sexual functioning, such that women reported poorer sexual functioning than men. Frequency Non-Erotic Thoughts and Associated Anxiety Seven participants (2 women, 5 men) reported no past experience with non-erotic thoughts, reducing the sample to 82 participants (41 men, 41 women) for analyses of thought frequency and anxiety data. Thus, 92% of the original sample of 89 participants reported having had at least one non-erotic thought during recent sexual experiences. The average number of non-erotic thoughts reported by participants was 3.85, with a range of 1-12. The numbers of thoughts reported by men and women are reported in Table 1. There were no gender differences in the number of thoughts reported. There were also no differences in the number of thoughts reported by participants who were in a relationship (M = 3.8, SD = 2.4) compared to those who were not (M = 4.2, SD = 2.12), t(1, 87) = -0.52, p = .56. Frequency of and anxiety associated with each thought reported were summed separately to produce overall frequency and anxiety ratings. These data are presented in Table 1. Women reported more frequent non-erotic thoughts (t[1, 80] = 1.99, p < .05) and reported greater anxiety associated with their non-erotic thoughts (t[1, 80] = 2.2, p < .03). There were no differences in the mean frequency and anxiety ratings for participants who were in a relationship compared to those who were not (t[1, 80] = 0.13, p =.90, and t[1, 80] = -0.27, p = .79) for frequency and anxiety ratings, respectively. The anxiety and frequency of the first, second, and third thoughts reported were analyzed an·a·lyze tr.v. an·a·lyzed, an·a·lyz·ing, an·a·lyz·es 1. To examine methodically by separating into parts and studying their interrelations. 2. Chemistry To make a chemical analysis of. 3. in separate repeated measures analysis of variance, using Fisher's Protected Tests for post-hoc comparison of means. In this method, post-hoc comparisons are made when an overall main effect is detected and comparisons significant at the same alpha level used to determine the significance of the main effect are considered significant (Cohen cohen or kohen (Hebrew: “priest”) Jewish priest descended from Zadok (a descendant of Aaron), priest at the First Temple of Jerusalem. The biblical priesthood was hereditary and male. & Cohen, 1983). Mean frequency ratings for the first, second, and third thoughts were 3.5 (SD = 1.69), 3.38 (SD = 1.91), and 2.44 (SD = 2.01), respectively, indicating moderate to low frequency. There was an overall effect of order on frequency (F[2, 80] = 12.71, p < .001). The first and second thoughts were equally frequent (F[2, 80] = 0.55, p = .46). Thoughts listed first were more frequent than those listed third (F[2, 80] = 12.77, p < .001), and thoughts listed second were more frequent than those listed third (F[2, 80] = 19.24, p >.001). Mean anxiety ratings for the first, second, and third thoughts were 3.81 (SD = 1.51), 3.61 (SD = 1.76) and 2.48 (SD = 2.10), respectively, indicating moderate to low anxiety. There was an effect of order on anxiety (F[2, 80] = 14.53, p < .001), such that the first and second were equal (F[2, 80] = 1.11, p = .29), the first was more anxiety-evoking than the third (F[2, 80] = 27.64, p < .001), and the second was more anxiety evoking than the third (F[2, 80] = 21.27, p < .001). Thus, the first and second thoughts listed were clearly the most frequent and anxiety-evoking. Gender Differences in the Content of Non-Erotic Thoughts Frequencies of men and women reporting each category of thoughts are presented in Table 2. As is clear from the table, a number of cells had very low expected values Expected value The weighted average of a probability distribution. Also known as the mean value. . We decided to collapse them into a smaller number by more general themes. The first author and two senior graduate students involved in sex research met to achieve a consensus on the most appropriate way of collapsing the categories. The final categories of thought content identified were External Consequences (Intrusion, Sexually Transmitted Infections/Pregnancy, Distracting Thoughts), Body Image (Body Concerns), Emotional Consequences (Emotional/Relationship, Morality/Guilt/Regret, Dislike of the Sexual Activity, Thoughts of Others), and Performance. To examine gender differences in content of non-erotic thoughts across gender, we conducted a series of chi-squared analyses on the first, second, and third thoughts. The results of these analyses are presented in Table 3. Analysis of the content of the first thought revealed a significant gender difference ([chi square chi square (kī), n a nonparametric statistic used with discrete data in the form of frequency count (nominal data) or percentages or proportions that can be reduced to frequencies. ] [3, N = 77] = 10.33, p < .02). There were no differences in thought content across gender for the second thought ([chi square] [3, N = 73) = 4.5, p < .21), and there was a marginally significant difference in the content of the third thought ([chi square] [3, N = 58] = 7.3, p < .06). Post-hoc tests of this effect were conducted using Haberman's (1973) analytic procedure, which produces a score representing the deviation of the observed frequency from the expected frequency for each cell (d). This deviate score is approximately related to the z-score. If the deviate is sufficiently large In mathematics, the phrase sufficiently large is used in contexts such as:
Post-hoc analyses of the first thought revealed that men and women reported an equal number of thoughts in the External Consequences and Emotional Consequences categories (d = 0.80, p = .42 and d = 0.54, p = .60, respectively). More women than men reported thoughts in the Body Image category (d = 8.2, p < .05) whereas more men than women reported thoughts in the Performance category (d = 5.7, p < .05). Post-hoc analyses of the content of the third thought revealed no gender differences in the External Consequences category (d = 1.00, p < .32). However, more women than men reported thoughts in the Body Image category (d = 2.25, p < .05) and the Emotional Consequences category (d = 2.61, p < .05), whereas more men reported thoughts from the Performance category (d = 5.00, p < .05). Thought Frequency and Anxiety To determine whether different kinds of thoughts occurred more frequently or were associated with more anxiety, we performed analyses of variance on frequency and anxiety of participants' first reported thought across thought type. There were no differences in the frequency ratings of the four categories of thoughts (F[3, 78] = 0.39, p = .76), nor ratings of their associated anxiety (F[3, 78] = 0.60, p = .62). Non-Erotic Thoughts and Sexual Attitudes, Functioning, and Satisfaction We conducted a multivariate analysis of variance on sexual attitudes, functioning, and satisfaction by category of the first thought reported. No significant differences were found (F[3, 78] = 0.88, p = .73). Zero-order correlations between the frequency of and anxiety associated with non-erotic thoughts and measures of sexual attitudes, functioning, and satisfaction are presented in Table 4. Sexual attitudes were not significantly correlated with the frequency of or anxiety associated with non-erotic thoughts for either men or women. Greater frequency of thoughts and greater anxiety about one's thoughts were associated with lower sexual satisfaction and functioning for women, and with poorer functioning, but not satisfaction, for men. DISCUSSION The purpose of this exploratory study was to examine the content and range of thoughts that might constitute spectatoring in men and women. In previous studies, the content of thoughts characteristic of spectatoring has been assumed (e.g., Sbrocco & Barlow, 1996), and only discrete kinds of thoughts have been studied (e.g., performance concerns and body image concerns; Faith & Schare, 1993; Trapnell et al., 1997). Furthermore, previous studies have tended not to examine whether the thoughts implicated in spectatoring actually occur during sexual situations (Faith & Schare; Trapnell et al.). This study addressed these problems by defining the type of thought of interest and allowing participants to report the content of such thoughts in their own words. As predicted, men and women reported a wide range of non-erotic thoughts that, by definition, detracted from their enjoyment of their sexual experiences. Although men tended to report greater performance-related thoughts and women more body image-related thoughts, it is noteworthy that men and women were equally likely to report other kinds of thoughts, such as thoughts about pregnancy and sexually transmitted infection. It is also important to note that only 17 of the 41 male participants reported performance-related thoughts as their first or second thought, and only 13 of 41 women reported body image concerns as the first or second thought. This suggests that spectatoring is not limited to body image and performance concerns, at least in this non-clinical student sample. It will be important to examine the range of content of non-erotic thoughts in different samples of people, including individuals in long-term committed relationships A committed relationship is an interpersonal relationship based upon a mutually agreed upon commitment to one another involving exclusivity, honesty, or some other agreed upon behavior. , with and without children. In this study, participants were not asked about their sexual orientation or the gender of their partner involved in their reported sexual interactions, but it is likely that the majority of the sample was heterosexual heterosexual /het·ero·sex·u·al/ (-sek´shoo-al) 1. pertaining to, characteristic of, or directed toward the opposite sex. 2. one who is sexually attracted to persons of the opposite sex. in orientation. It will be necessary to examine the range of content of non-erotic thought in individuals of bisexual bisexual /bi·sex·u·al/ (-sek´shoo-al) 1. pertaining to or characterized by bisexuality. 2. an individual exhibiting bisexuality. 3. pertaining to or characterized by hermaphroditism. 4. and homosexual orientation before making any generalizations to these populations. This study also excluded individuals with an abuse history, but it would be beneficial to understand the range of content of non-erotic thoughts experienced by people with this kind of history. The findings of this study were based on retrospective self-report of participants' previous sexual encounters. Participants were selected on the basis that they had had sexual intercourse with a partner within the past three months. It is possible, then, that some participants were reporting on experiences as far back in time as 12 weeks prior to the study. However, in research on other types of unwanted thoughts, it has been found that people have readily-available and vivid recall of upsetting, problematic thoughts, even when those thoughts occur infrequently in·fre·quent adj. 1. Not occurring regularly; occasional or rare: an infrequent guest. 2. (e.g., Purdon & Clark, 1993). Furthermore, the majority of the sample (69 of 89) reported that they were in a sexual relationship, and the mean length of the relationship was close to two years, suggesting regularity of contact as opposed to infrequent in·fre·quent adj. 1. Not occurring regularly; occasional or rare: an infrequent guest. 2. dating. Thus, it is more likely that participants were reporting on fairly current sexual encounters with their partners. That the majority of the sample was in a longer-term relationship also enhances the potential generalizability of the findings of the study to non-student samples of individuals in committed relationships. Certainly, non-student samples could report on a similar variety of thought content. For example, individuals who are married may have concerns about pregnancy (do not want more children, or do not want another child at that particular time), about being intruded in·trude v. in·trud·ed, in·trud·ing, in·trudes v.tr. 1. To put or force in inappropriately, especially without invitation, fitness, or permission: upon (by children perhaps, rather than roommates or parents), about sexually transmitted infection (if there is a concern about fidelity in the relationship), or about former lovers. Greater frequency of and anxiety evoked e·voke tr.v. e·voked, e·vok·ing, e·vokes 1. To summon or call forth: actions that evoked our mistrust. 2. by non-erotic thoughts were associated with poorer sexual functioning in both men and women, and with less sexual satisfaction in women, but not men. It is not clear why frequency and anxiety evoked by non-erotic thoughts was not associated with sexual satisfaction in men. In this sample, the correlation between sexual satisfaction and sexual functioning in men was small (r = -.23) compared to women's (r = -.51), suggesting that other factors besides functioning predict satisfaction for men. The causal direction of the link between non-erotic thoughts and sexual functioning cannot be established in this study, but it is possible that individuals with poorer sexual functioning generate more non-erotic thoughts in sexual situations. A longitudinal study longitudinal study a chronological study in epidemiology which attempts to establish a relationship between an antecedent cause and a subsequent effect. See also cohort study. examining tendency to experience non-erotic thoughts during sexual situations and later changes in sexual functioning would address this problem. It is also important to note that in this non-selected sample, concerns relevant to specific dysfunctions were not well-sampled. It is possible that the key thoughts for individuals with clinically significant sexual dysfunction are different from those assessed here. It will be important to conduct this study on a broader sample of men and women with clinically significant sexual dysfunctions. The NETC was developed exclusively for this study, and no data on the test-retest reliability test-retest reliability Psychology A measure of the ability of a psychologic testing instrument to yield the same result for a single Pt at 2 different test periods, which are closely spaced so that any variation detected reflects reliability of the instrument of responses are available. The content of thoughts reported may change over time. However, the results from this study suggest that we cannot predict poorer sexual functioning or satisfaction from the content of thoughts. This is consistent with research on other types of unwanted thoughts, such as obsessions. For example, Rowa, Purdon, Summerfeldt, and Antony (2005) compared individuals' most and least upsetting unwanted, recurrent thought (i.e., obsession). There were no differences in content category; instead, individuals' most upsetting obsession was that which was more threatening to immediate goals and was more inconsistent with morals and values. That is, problematic obsessions were appraised the most negatively because they were experienced as threatening to immediate goals. The same may be the case for non-erotic thoughts. If an individual's primary concern is establishing her/himself as an excellent sexual performer, performance concerns may be more salient, intrusive, and impairing than thoughts about pregnancy or the implications of the sex for the relationship. If an individual's primary concern is enhancing the emotional aspects of the relationship through sexual intimacy, then thoughts about another partner or the implications of the sex for the relationship may be more salient, intrusive, and impairing than thoughts about body image. This idea is consistent with cognitive models The term cognitive model can have basically two meanings. In cognitive psychology, a model is a simplified representation of reality. The essential quality of such a model is to help deciding the appropriate actions, i.e. of anxiety. Thus, even if reported thought content changes over time, the impact of those thoughts on important factors such as sexual satisfaction and functioning may be similar. Finally, research on changes in the content of unwanted thoughts, such as obsessions, over time suggests that although the content might change, the category of thought reported as most distressing does not (Matix-Cols et al., 2002). Nonetheless, it would be interesting to examine changes in thought content over time to determine what changes take place and for what reasons. The frequency of and anxiety associated with non-erotic thoughts were not associated with sexual attitudes in this study. That is, individuals who were higher in erotophobia were no more likely to report such thoughts than erotophilic individuals. This may suggest that the occurrence of non-erotic thoughts during sexual situations is not a product of a general negative orientation toward sexual cues, but that erotophilic individuals are just as susceptible to disruptions in sexual enjoyment due to the occurrence of non-erotic thoughts as are erotophobic individuals. Barlow's model (1986) suggests spectatoring derives from negative sexual schema, which in turn derive from negative attitudes towards sexuality, but our data do not appear to support this. The SOS is a dated instrument (e.g., one of the items refers to "go go girls The Go Go Girls are a Eurobeat group under the Go Go's Music label. This Eurobeat group use to be under the A-Beat-C label, but since Sandro Oliva and Domino left that label, they took the rights to the group over to their new label, Go Go's Music. "), so it may not be an adequate measure of erotophobia/philia. However, it may also be the case that erotophobic individuals expect negative thoughts during sexual activity and, therefore, find them unremarkable and as not especially impairing. The number of thoughts reported, frequency of the thoughts, and anxiety evoked by the thoughts were also the same whether participants were currently in a relationship or not, suggesting that relationship status is not a moderating factor in the occurrence of spectatoring. Our findings have potential implications for treatment of sexual problems, or at least for assistance in enhancement of sexual functioning. Treatment could focus on modification of erroneous beliefs Noun 1. erroneous belief - a misconception resulting from incorrect information error misconception - an incorrect conception that evoke the problematic thoughts for each individual or on assisting the client in changing practical circumstances under which they engage in sexual activity. For example, it may be useful to help people develop a more assertive as·ser·tive adj. Inclined to bold or confident assertion; aggressively self-assured. as·ser tive·ly adv. sexual style, such that they anticipate and plan for
sexual situations more systematically and are less concerned about being
intruded upon or not having appropriate protection against pregnancy and
sexually transmitted infections.Treatment may also be facilitated by helping people learn to re-focus their attention on the erotic erotic /erot·ic/ (e-rot´ik) 1. charged with sexual feeling. 2. pertaining to sexual desire. e·rot·ic adj. 1. Of or concerning sexual love and desire. aspects of the situation when it has turned to non-erotic thoughts. When individuals are "threat-sensitive" in sexual situations, threat-relevant thoughts (e.g., a fleeting thought of pregnancy) may have sudden priority in attentional processing, making it difficult to disengage with them. The challenge in helping people with sexual problems may be in helping them overcome the perceived need to focus attention on negative cues at the expense of positive cues, just as treatment of certain anxiety problems (e.g., obsessive-compulsive disorder obsessive-compulsive disorder Mental disorder in which an individual experiences obsessions or compulsions, either singly or together. An obsession is a persistent disturbing preoccupation with an unreasonable idea or feeling (such as of being contaminated through shaking and generalized anxiety disorder Generalized Anxiety Disorder Definition Generalized anxiety disorder is a condition characterized by "free floating" anxiety or apprehension not linked to a specific cause or situation. ) involves helping the person recognize that the unwanted thought does not signify sig·ni·fy v. sig·ni·fied, sig·ni·fy·ing, sig·ni·fies v.tr. 1. To denote; mean. 2. To make known, as with a sign or word: signify one's intent. danger and that it is safe to focus attention elsewhere. Future research should determine the extent to which people are able to turn their attention away from their non-erotic thoughts and back to the erotic aspects of the situation, and the strategies that they use to do so. It may be that individuals with sexual dysfunction do not regulate their thoughts, just as Barlow (1986) argued they do not regulate their sexual behavior in aid of recovering arousal. The findings from this study suggest men and women experience a wide range of thoughts that interfere with sexual functioning. For women, these thoughts also appear to interfere with satisfaction. Our understanding of sexual functioning and satisfaction may be advanced by continued investigation of non-erotic thought. These data provide modest support for cognitive-behavioral models of sexual dysfunction and indicate both the importance of examining a broad range of non-erotic thought content and of taking gender into account when applying these models to understanding and treating sexual difficulties. APPENDIX INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE NON-EROTIC THOUGHT CONTENT QUESTIONNAIRE Research tells us that people often have thoughts during their sexual encounters that detract from the quality of the experience. For example, people may be thinking things like, "I hope I don't get pregnant," "What if I get an STD (Subscriber Trunk Dialing) Long distance dialing outside of the U.S. that does not require operator intervention. STD prefix codes are required and billing is based on call units, which are a fixed amount of money in the currency of that country. ?," "What if someone walks in on us?," "My body is unattractive," "This is immoral," "I should be doing my homework," etc. Thoughts like these can interfere with sexual performance and sexual satisfaction. The above examples are simply guesses at the kinds of thoughts that could detract from sexual encounters. We are interested in getting a better sense of the full range of thoughts that people might have during sexual encounters that actually detract from their enjoyment of the encounter. Please think back to your last few sexual encounters. Please try to recall any thoughts you may have had that took away from your enjoyment of the experience (i.e., if you didn't have these thoughts, your sexual experience would probably have been better). If you have never experienced thoughts of this kind, please skip to the next questionnaire. If you can recall experiencing thoughts of this kind during sexual encounters, please write them down in the space below. Please write down as many thoughts as you can remember having. For each thought, please rate how often it typically occurs during sexual encounters and how much anxiety it causes you during sexual encounters. Please remember that such thoughts are normal, and that people vary in how many different such thoughts they have, in how often such thoughts occur, and in how much anxiety each thought causes. ** Please do not feel obligated ob·li·gate tr.v. ob·li·gat·ed, ob·li·gat·ing, ob·li·gates 1. To bind, compel, or constrain by a social, legal, or moral tie. See Synonyms at force. 2. To cause to be grateful or indebted; oblige. to write down twelve different thoughts. Twelve is an arbitrary number. If you can recall more than twelve different thoughts, please turn over the paper and write them on the back. Manuscript accepted October 17, 2005 REFERENCES Andersen, B. L., & Cyranowski, J. M. (1994). Women's sexual self-schema. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology The Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (often referred to as JPSP) is a monthly psychology journal of the American Psychological Association. It is considered one of the top journals in the fields of social and personality psychology. , 67, 1,079-1,100. Barlow, D. H. (1986). Causes of sexual dysfunction: The role of anxiety and cognitive interference. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology The Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology (JCCP) is a bimonthly psychology journal of the American Psychological Association. Its focus is on treatment and prevention in all areas of clinical and clinical-health psychology and especially on topics that appeal to a broad , 54, 140-148. Cohen, J., & Cohen, P. (1983). Applied multiple regression/correlation analysis for the behavioral sciences behavioral sciences, n.pl those sciences devoted to the study of human and animal behavior. . Hillsdale: Lawrence-Erlbaum. Dove, N. L., & Wiederman, M. W. (2000). Cognitive distraction and women's sexual functioning. Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy, 26, 67-78. Faith, M. S., & Schare, M. L. (1993). The role of body image in sexually avoidant behavior. Archives of Sexual Behavior Archives of Sexual Behavior is an academic sexology journal and the official publication of the International Academy of Sex Research. Contributions consist of empirical research (both quantitative and qualitative), theoretical reviews and essays, clinical case , 22, 345-356. Fisher, W. A., Byrne, D., White, L. A., & Kelley, K. (1988). Erotophobia-erotophilia as a dimension of personality. The Journal of Sex Research, 25, 123-151. Frank, E., Anderson, C., & Rubenstein, D. (1978). Frequency of sexual dysfunctions in "normal" couples. New England Journal of Medicine The New England Journal of Medicine (New Engl J Med or NEJM) is an English-language peer-reviewed medical journal published by the Massachusetts Medical Society. It is one of the most popular and widely-read peer-reviewed general medical journals in the world. , 299, 111-115. Haberman, S. J. (1973). The analysis of residuals in cross-classified tables. Biometrics, 29, 205-220. Heiman, J. R. (2002). Sexual dysfunction: Overview of prevalence, etiological etiological pertaining to etiology. etiological diagnosis the name of a disease which includes the identification of the causative agent, e.g. Streptococcus agalactiae mastitis. factors and treatments. The Journal of Sex Research, 39, 73-78. Hynie, M., & Lydon, J. E. (1995). Women's perceptions of female contraceptive contraceptive /con·tra·cep·tive/ (-sep´tiv) 1. diminishing the likelihood of or preventing conception. 2. an agent that so acts. behavior: Experimental evidence of the social double standard. Psychology of Women's Quarterly, 19, 563-581. Hynie, M., Lydon, J. E., & Taradash, A. (1997). Commitment, intimacy and women's perceptions of premarital sex and contraceptive readiness. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21, 447-464. Laan, E., Everaerd, W., van Aanhold, M., & Rebel, M. (1993). Performance demand and sexual arousal in women. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 31, 25-35. Laumann, E. O., Gagnon, J. H., Michael, R. T., & Michaels, S. (1995). The social organization of sexuality: Sexual practices in the United States United States, officially United States of America, republic (2005 est. pop. 295,734,000), 3,539,227 sq mi (9,166,598 sq km), North America. The United States is the world's third largest country in population and the fourth largest country in area. . Chicago: University of Chicago Press The University of Chicago Press is the largest university press in the United States. It is operated by the University of Chicago and publishes a wide variety of academic titles, including The Chicago Manual of Style, dozens of academic journals, including . Laumann, E. O., Paik, A., & Rosen, R. C. (1999). Sexual dysfunction in the United States. Journal of the American Medical Association JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association is an international peer-reviewed general medical journal, published 48 times per year by the American Medical Association. JAMA is the most widely circulated medical journal in the world. , 281, 537-544. Lawrance, K., & Byers, E. S. (1992, May). Sexual satisfaction: A social exchange perspective. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Canadian Psychological Association The Canadian Psychological Association is the primary organization representing psychologists throughout Canada. It was organized in 1939 and incorporated under the Canada Corporations Act, Part II, in May 1950. , Quebec. Lawrance, K., & Byers, E. S. (1995). Sexual satisfaction in long-term heterosexual relationships: The Interpersonal in·ter·per·son·al adj. 1. Of or relating to the interactions between individuals: interpersonal skills. 2. Exchange Model of Sexual Satisfaction. Personal Relationships, 2, 267-285. MacNeil, S., & Byers, E. S. (1997). The relationship between sexual problems, communication, and sexual satisfaction. Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality This article is about human sexual perceptions. For information about sexual activities and practices, see Human sexual behavior. Generally speaking, human sexuality is how people experience and express themselves as sexual beings. , 6, 277-283. Masters, W. H., & Johnson, V. E. (1966). Human sexual response. Boston: Little Brown and Company. Masters, W. H., & Johnson, V. E. (1970). Human sexual inadequacy. Boston: Little Brown and Company. Matix-Cols, D., Rauch, S. L., Eisen, J. L., Shera, D. M., Goodman, W. K., Rasmussen, S. A., et al. (2002). Symptom stability in adult obsessive-compulsive disorder: Data from a naturalistic nat·u·ral·is·tic adj. 1. Imitating or producing the effect or appearance of nature. 2. Of or in accordance with the doctrines of naturalism. two-year follow-up study. American Journal of Psychiatry The American Journal of Psychiatry (AJP) is the most widely read psychiatric journal in the world. It covers topics on biological psychiatry, treatment innovations, forensic, ethical, economic, and social issues. , 159, 263-268. Muehlenhard, C. L., & McCoy, M. L. (1991). Double standard double blind: The sexual double standard and women's communication about sex. Psychology of Women's Quarterly, 15, 447-462. Obsessive Compulsive Cognitions Working Group (1997). Cognitive assessment of obsessive compulsive disorder Obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) Disorder characterized by persistent, intrusive, and senseless thoughts (obsessions) or compulsions to perform repetitive behaviors that interfere with normal functioning. Mentioned in: Tourette Syndrome . Behaviour Research and Therapy, 35, 667-681. Pridal, C. G., & LoPiccolo, J. (2000). Multielement treatment of desire disorders. In S. R. Leiblum and R. C. Rosen (Eds.) Principles and practice of sex therapy (3rd Edition, pp. 57-81). New York New York, state, United States New York, Middle Atlantic state of the United States. It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Atlantic Ocean (E), New Jersey and Pennsylvania (S), Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Canadian province of : Guilford. Purdon, C., & Clark, D. A. (1993). Obsessional intrusive thoughts Intrusive thoughts are unwelcome, involuntary thoughts, images or unpleasant ideas that may become obsessions, are upsetting or distressing, and can be difficult to be free of and manage. in nonclinical subjects. Part I. Content and relation with depressive de·pres·sive adj. 1. Tending to depress or lower. 2. Depressing; gloomy. 3. Of or relating to psychological depression. n. A person suffering from psychological depression. , anxious and obsessional symptoms. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 31, 713-720. Purdon, C., & Telford, J. (1999). Body self-consciousness, sexual satisfaction and sexual functioning. Poster presented at the Association for the Advancement of Behavior Therapy behavior therapy or behavior modification, in psychology, treatment of human behavioral disorders through the reinforcement of acceptable behavior and suppression of undesirable behavior. Annual Meeting, Toronto, Canada. Rowa, K., Purdon, C., Summerfeldt, L., & Antony, M. M. (2005). Why are certain obsessions more upsetting than others? Behaviour Research and Therapy, 43, 1,453-1,465. Sbrocco, T., & Barlow, D. H. (1996). Conceptualizing the cognitive component of sexual arousal: Implications for sexuality research and treatment. In P. Salkovskis (Ed.), Frontiers of cognitive therapy cognitive therapy n. Any of a variety of techniques in psychotherapy that utilize guided self-discovery, imaging, self-instruction, and related forms of elicited cognitions as the principal mode of treatment. (pp. 419-449). New York: Guilford Press. Trapnell, P. D., Meston, C. M., & Gorzalka, B. B. (1997). Spectatoring and the relationship between body image and sexual experience: Self-focus or self-valence? The Journal of Sex Research, 34, 267-278. Christine Purdon and Laura Holdaway University of Waterloo The University of Waterloo (also referred to as UW, UWaterloo, or Waterloo) is a medium-sized research-intensive public university in the city of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada. The school was founded in 1957. , Ontario, Canada Address correspondence to Christine Purdon, Ph.D., Dept. of Psychology, University of Waterloo, 200 University Ave. W., Waterloo, ON N2L N2L Liquid Nitrogen N2L Newton's Second Law (mechanics) 3G1, Canada; e-mail: clpurdon@uwaterloo.ca.
Table 1. Means and Standard Deviations on Measures
Across Women and Men
Women (n = 41) Men (n = 41)
Measures M SD M SD t
GMSEX 29.12 5.17 27.73 5.26 1.21
SFQ 11.12 5.16 9.10 4.03 1.98 *
SOS 77.95 17.03 83.46 11.51 -1.72
Number of Thoughts 4.41 2.04 4.00 2.31 0.86
Frequency 16.81 10.91 12.51 8.48 1.99 *
Anxiety 17.49 10.71 12.92 7.84 2.20 *
Note. Degrees of freedom = 80 in all t-tests. GMSEX = total score on
the Global Measure of Sexual Satisfaction; SFQ = total score on the
Sexual Functioning Questionnaire; SOS = total score on the Sexual
Opinion Survey; Number of Thoughts = total number of thoughts
reported; Frequency = summed total of frequency of non-erotic
thoughts; Anxiety = summed total of anxiety associated with
non-erotic thoughts.
* p < .05
Table 2. Frequency of the First Three Thoughts Reported
by Women and Men on the NETC by Category
Thought 1 Thought 2
Women Men Women Men
Category (n=41) (n=41) (n=40) (n=38)
Performance 3 13 8 4
Intrusion 9 5 13 6
Body Concerns 7 1 6 3
STI/Pregnancy 11 11 7 9
Emotional/Relationship 1 0 0 4
Morality/Guilt 1 2 2 1
Dislike of Activity 2 3 1 3
Distracting Thoughts 2 4 2 4
Thoughts of Others 1 1 0 0
Non-codeable 4 1 1 4
Thought 3
Women Men
Category (n=31) (n=30)
Performance 2 8
Intrusion 3 4
Body Concerns 8 4
STI/Pregnancy 5 5
Emotional/Relationship 2 2
Morality/Guilt 3 2
Dislike of Activity 6 1
Distracting Thoughts 1 2
Thoughts of Others 0 0
Non-codeable 1 8
Table 3. Observed and Expected Frequencies
of Thought Categories by Gender
Thought 1 Thought 2
Women Men Women Men
(n = 28) (n = 35) (n = 39) (n = 34)
Performance 3 13 8 4
7 9 6 6
External Cons. 13 15 22 19
12 16 22 19
Body Concerns 7 1 6 3
4 4 5 4
Emotional Cons. 5 6 3 8
5 6 6 5
Performance 3 13 8 4
7 9 6 6
Thought 3
Women Men
(n = 30) (n = 28)
Performance 2 8
5 5
External Cons. 9 11
10 10
Body Concerns 8 4
6 6
Emotional Cons. 11 5
8 8
Performance 2 8
5 5
Note. External Cons. = External Consequences; Emotional Cons. =
Emotional Consequences. Numbers in italics represent expected
frequencies for each cell; numbers not italicized are the
observed frequencies.
Table 4. Zero-Order Correlations between Non-Erotic
Thoughts and Measures of Sexual Attitudes,
Functioning, and Satisfaction in Men and Women
Anxiety GMSEX SFQ SOS
Frequency .86 * -.48 * .50 * .20
(.88 *) (-.21) (.55 *) (-.16)
Anxiety -.47 * .55 * .26
(-.26) (.55 *) (-.18)
GMSEX -.51 * -.21
(-.23) (.17)
SFQ .12
(-.12)
Note. Numbers in parentheses represent correlations for men. For all
correlations, n = 41 women and n = 41 men. GMSEX = Global Measure of
Sexual Satisfaction; SFQ = Sexual Functioning Questionnaire; SOS =
Sexual Opinion Survey; Frequency = total frequency of non-erotic
thoughts; Anxiety = total anxiety associated with non-erotic thoughts.
* p < .05
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