New Zealand mechanics' institutes and their effect on public library development.

The nearly 100 mechanics' and like institutes in New Zealand have often been regarded as just stepping stones to the formation of public libraries, or as limited attempts at adult education provision. However the)' had a significant if varied impact on cultural life, at least until the 1880s. Their legacy remains in the way that public libraries are still locally funded without direct national government financial support, and in the overwhelming acceptance of public libraries as a vital part of the community. Edited version of a paper presented at the Lianza conference September 2004

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The first mechanics' institutes worldwide can be traced back at least to 1821 in the UK to the Edinburgh School of Arts and the 1823 Glasgow and London mechanics' institutes. They provided lectures on science for local craftsmen and skilled workers, otherwise known as mechanics, with the range of lectures soon expanding to include various aspects of self improvement. By the time of their export to New Zealand in the middle of the nineteenth century, the norm was more to provide a modest library of fiction and some nonfiction, a reading room for newspapers and magazines, and a venue for popular lectures and classes, book readings, selections from plays and light drama and music. Working men were notably absent from attendance. Nevertheless, the entertainment provided still had to have an educational aspect or 'infotainment' in today's vernacular.

The Auckland Mechanics' Institute

Opened on 30 September 1842 in rented premises, by 1856 the Auckland Institute also boasted a lecture hall, which for many years was the only public meeting place available in Auckland. That hall had been financed by a two to one grant from the Auckland Provincial Council. The annual report to members in 1856 specified a lectures and classes committee, a library committee and a repairs committee. That in 1858 also reported classes on debating and music, and concerts, whilst that in 1861 reported lectures on such topics as astronomy, the British Empire and chemistry. In 1866 it boasted a circulating library, a reading room and reference library, a hall, and classes on elocution and discussion or debating. In the 1860s lectures included as topics 'Temperance', 'The importance of right principles', 'Shakespeare' and various aspects of the writings of Charles Dickens. Musical entertainment included soirees with bands and singers. Generally, the major expenditures were the salary of the secretary and the purchase of oil, candles, firewood and furniture, newspaper and journal subscriptions, books and their binding, and general maintenance.

By the 1870s the institute had tried to revive itself by, according to the Daily Southern Cross of 7 June 1870, offering 'a series of light and amusing literary entertainments ... (along with) ... scientific, historical and other lectures, together with concerts, etc; thus making it something like what an institution of this nature is in the old country'. Shakur argues that by 1860 the mechanics' institutes were 'the most pervasive and effective institution in Great Britain for the after school education of skilled workers ... (and became) ... more social and less educational' (1) as public authorities took over some of their roles. In New Zealand mechanics' institutes adopted that 'more social' role from the beginning.

On 6 June 1870 the Auckland Mechanics' Institute echoed very much the program available at the nearby Newton Athenaeum, although with less Shakespeare and more popular music. However the Auckland institute was described in the Daily Southern Cross of 24 May 1872 as 'an effete institution fast verging into obscurity and threatening to become defunct'. Nevertheless, it lasted nearly 38 years as a place where books and newspapers could be read, and books borrowed upon payment of a subscription and a loan fee.

In 1879 and with a declining membership the institute asked the Auckland City Council to take it over, and in 1880 its bookstock was absorbed into that of the new public library. Hence, Auckland City Libraries dates from 1880 but remained based in the mechanics' institute building until 1886. For some time after, the Auckland Workingmen's Club kept the additional 'and Mechanics Institute' in its title, obviously retaining some of the social functions. It should be noted that the Auckland Provincial Council Library, also absorbed into the new Auckland Public Library, was just for elected members and readers nominated by members.

Other Auckland area institutes

Elsewhere in the Auckland urban area the Onehunga Institute opened in 1862 and affirmed that it was open to all and not just mechanics. By 1879 its reading room was struggling, but receiving money from the Onehunga Borough Council. That library eventually faded, and was replaced by a Carnegie funded library in the early twentieth century. That became what is today the Onehunga Community Library, a part of Auckland City Libraries since 1989.

The Newmarket Literary Association dated from 1869 and there was later a Newmarket Literary Institute & Reading Room, which lasted from the 1870s to the 1890s. The opening of the locally funded Newton Athenaeum on 7 June 1870 provided brief excerpts from the classics of music, drama, poetry and novels, along with more popular songs. The aim, according to the Daily Southern Cross 8 June 1870, being 'the social, moral and intellectual enlightenment of the masses'. The Athenaeum also provided a reading room for newspapers and magazines for local residents, but following a drastic fire in 1886 it was decided not to rebuild. More recent examples include the individually funded Leys Institute from 1899. That library dates from 1905 and the gymnasium from 1906. It is now, with Onehunga, part of Auckland City Libraries.

In the greater Auckland area the Waiuku (Literary) Institute was formed in the 1860s or 1870s, and both the Papakura Literary Institute and the Rodney Athenaeum in the 1870s. The Helensville area boasted the Kaukapakapa Public Hall & Athenaeum formed in the 1880s, and later both the nearby Makarau Public Hall & Athenaeum and the Parakai Public Hall & Athenaeum. From the 1910s the Warkworth area in turn boasted both the Ahuroa Public Hall & Athenaeum and the Big Omaha Mechanics' Institute. These appear to have been rural community centres with small libraries.

Northland, Waikato and Bay of Plenty institutes

The Whangarei Literary Institute was formed on 11 March 1871, followed later by the Waipu Library & Literary Association. Elsewhere in Northland the Okaihau Mutual Improvement & Literary Association was formed in the 1870s. Later there was also a Wairoa Mechanics' Institute.

In the Waikato, the Hamilton Institute lasted only from 1870 to 1874, when a combination of a fire and the secretary of the institute running off with the funds finished it off: There was a short lived Hamilton Literary Association from 1875 to 1878, and from 1888 the Hamilton Borough Council opened up a former toll house at the traffic bridge, and provided some books to commence library service to local residents. That became the basis for Hamilton City Libraries. In the 1910s the Kaihere Athenaeum, Library & Institute was formed near Morrinsville. The Tauranga Mechanics' Institute lasted from 1871 to 1881. When a fire destroyed the hall, library and reading room, the local council then provided a public library, while the Opotiki Mechanics' Institute was formed in the 1870s.

Institutes in the Coromandel area

As the second most populated area in the northern half of the North island in the nineteenth century, the Coromandel Peninsula had a number of mechanics' institutes. The Thames Mechanics' Institute was formed in 1869. However by 1875 it was instead functioning basically as a museum. From 1880 the library and the mineral collection gifted to it went to the new borough controlled free public library, and from 1886 that mineral collection was at the Thames School of Mines. Elsewhere in the Coromandel there were literary institutes at Kaponga and Tokatea Hill by the early 1870s, the Driving Creek Institute was formed in 1882 and there was also the Coromandel Institute itself. The Mercury Bay Athenaeum was formed in the 1880s.

As an example of the fare offered, the Grahamstown based Thames Mechanics' Institute on the evening of 1 November 1871 presented the trial scene from Shakespeare's Merchant of Venice, a light musical interlude and what the Thames guardian & mining record of 31 October 1872 termed a 'pleasant drama'. The location was the Academy of Music in Brown Street and a choice of stalls, boxes or pit was offered to those attending. The Academy of Music later took on a life of its own as a major venue for popular entertainment.

Auckland Provincial government support

The Auckland Provincial Council voted funds for mechanics' institutes from 1870. At first it part funded just the Auckland and Thames Mechanics' institutes, but in 1872 also part funded the Coromandel Mechanics' Institute.

In 1874 it funded technical classes in arithmetic, mathematics, mechanical and architectural drawing and Maori at the Auckland Institute. By the 1874/1875 financial year funding went to the Kaponga and Tokatea Institutes in Coromandel, the mechanics' institutes at Auckland and Thames, and the public library and institute at Gisborne. A library had been formed at Turanga in 1869, in a room in the Courthouse. Around half the total council allocation went to other libraries in country areas.

Mechanics' institutes in Hawkes Bay, Westland, Marlborough and Southland 

The small population Hawkes Bay and Southland provincial councils appear not to have ever addressed the issue of funding such institutes, while Westland County and then Provincial Council regularly defeated attempts to provide endowments for literary institutes and the like. Nevertheless, both the Hawkes Bay Mechanics' Institute and the Napier Athenaeum & Mechanics' Institute were formed in the 1850s, while in Westland the Hokitika Mechanics' Institute was formed in the 1870s. Marlborough Province had a Picton based Marlborough Literary Institute from 1864. Southland does not feature.

Wellington area mechanics' institutes

In Wellington the original Port Nicholson institute lasted only from 1841 to late 1844, but efforts were made to revive it in June 1848 and it was renamed the Wellington Athenaeum & Mechanics' Institute in 1849. A new hall was opened on reserve land in April 1850 and lectures, concerts, debates and conversazione continued into the 1860s. In 1855 a reading room was also proposed. However there appears to have been no direct financial assistance from the Wellington Provincial Council. A new building was opened in 1877 but financial difficulties in the 1880s led to the Wellington City Council, with some private support, providing a full public library service from 1893.

In the 1850s there was also a Hutt Mechanics' Institute, and elsewhere in Wellington Province the Wanganui and Taranaki mechanics' institutes were both formed in the 1870s. The Featherston Literary Institute was formed in the 1890s and six separate institutes were formed in the Taihape area from the 1900s to the 1930s: Kaitieke, Mataroa, Pukeokahu, Taihape itself, Tiriraukawa and Utiku. All appear to have resulted from local initiatives.

Nelson area mechanics' institutes

The Nelson Literary & Scientific Institution was formed by ship's officers on the Whitby on its way out to Nelson on 17 May 1841. It had the aim of spreading general knowledge in that New Zealand Company settlement, and also encouraging scientific research. On another ship, the Mary Ann, there was a competing movement to set up a benefit society and a mechanics' institute. Some have read into this an element of class conflict in nineteenth century Nelson, but this is likely more a case of imposing theories on unrelated events. Eventually, on 6 June 1842, matters were decided in favour of the Whitby people, but with a liberalisation of the conditions of membership. A local citizen provided the land, and the building itself had a library, reading room and a room for public meetings and lectures. However for most of the 1840s it operated basically as 'an elite gentlemen's club'. In nearby Richmond a separate mechanics' institute was formed in 1846, with lectures provided. From 1850 the Nelson Institute began to also provide lectures and classes.

In 1859 the Nelson Provincial Council provided a new site for the Literary and Mechanics' Institute, and 200 [pounds sterling] towards building costs. That opened in 186l, and continued until a fire in 1906. The 1907 Nelson Institute Act allowed for incorporation and the ability to draw on 690 acres of land. Until 1965 that institute still offered a subscription library service, and it is now known as the Nelson Provincial Museum. Elsewhere in the Nelson Province the Charleston Mechanics' Institute & Library was formed in the 1870s.

Canterbury area mechanics' institutes

The Canterbury Provincial Council was more generous than other councils. There were regular funds for 'public libraries, college and museum', but this largely went to the combined university college, museum and public library. In 1875 all such funds were less than one per cent of total council expenditure.

Pressure to establish a local mechanics' institute dates from at least March 1852, and the Lyttelton Colonists' Society was formed in 1853. The Christchurch Mechanics' Institute was founded on 26 May 1859. In January 1868 the institute was renamed the Christchurch Literary Institute, and in 1870 the provincial council passed a museum and library ordinance for Christchurch. From 15 December 1873 the property of the literary institute went to Canterbury College, which then ran the Canterbury Public Library from 1878 to 1948, when the Christchurch City Council took it over. In the greater Christchurch area the St Albans Mutual Improvement Society ran a meeting place from 1867 and added a library in 1873.

The council's ambitious 1875 public library ordinance encouraged lending and reference libraries, newspaper and periodical reading rooms, but also 'meetings for social and intellectual improvement, educational classes and lectures, the collection of scientific apparatus or other things illustrative of science or useful for education, providing rational amusement and recreation' through mechanics' institutes, athenaeums and reading rooms. However in the following year the council was dissolved.

In North Canterbury local mechanics' institutes varied from operating solely as libraries, to cultural and community centres. A reading room was opened in Kaiapoi in June 1865 with a library and lecture room added later. Leithfield followed with an institute and library by the end of 1866, and a combination of privately donated land and local subscriptions created the Oxford Mechanics' Institute in 1868. The provincial council provided a book subsidy for both the Oxford and nearby Rangiora Institute.

The Rangiora Institute was also largely funded by private efforts and while the local road board's offices originally provided a venue in 1872, a separate hall was opened on 1 January 1873 and a reading room and library added later in the 1870s. Both the Kaiapoi and Rangiora halls were used for most local public meetings and functions. As elsewhere, members attended readings, recitations, and scenes from plays, flower shows, art and craft exhibitions, musical performances and lectures. Later there were phonographic concerts and early films were shown.

There was also a mechanics' institute at Cust, although as with Flaxton, Ashley and Eyreton, it was basically a library encouraged by provincial council book subsidies. In the 1890s debates, discussions and readings ceased at the various institutes, with the bookstock at Oxford finally getting a permanent home in 1893. The Kaiapoi Institute closed in 1912 with its books incorporated into the council run public library. The Rangiora hall was burnt down in 1925 and replaced by a town hall, complete with free public library and reading room. The Domett Hall & Mechanics' Institute and the Woodend Mechanics' Institute were both formed in the 1910s.

In South Canterbury the Timaru Mechanics' institute and Public Library was formed in 1862, and funded by private subscriptions. A new building was erected on land granted by the provincial council in 1869 and by 1872 Timaru offered both a reading room and a library. The building itself was funded by a loan which was finally paid back in 1902. The first meeting to form the Waimate Mechanics' Institute was on 18 August 1868 and from 5 July 1875 it was run as a joint public library and mechanics' institute. The Temuka Mechanics' institute was founded on 12 September 1872. Morven Athenaeum & Library was founded in the 1900s and was still offering a library service in 1938.

Otago area mechanics' institutes

The Dunedin Mechanics' Institute was formed on 17 June 1851, providing lectures, classes and a library from local funding and a provincial council grant. However it had few members or books, ran no classes and in 1859 merged into the Dunedin Athenaeum & Mechanics' Institute. That institute provided a library, a reading room, a museum and lectures. The provincial council refused to endow it with a freehold site as it was not operating as a free public library, being subscription based. Also, despite the enabling powers given to local authorities by the 1869 Public Libraries Act, the Athenaeum refused to be taken over by the Dunedin City Council. Instead, in 1875 the Otago University Library took over the provincial council library and the university provided a free public reference library with a provincial council subsidy. Dunedin Public Library dates from 1908.

The Otago Provincial Council echoed the supportive policies of the Victorian colonial government, particularly from 1863. It set aside reserve land for mechanics' institutes and the like at Dunedin in 1863, Oamaru in 1865, Lawrence in 1870, Hampden and Invercargill in 1871, Cromwell and Riverton in 1873, Roslyn in 1874 and Arrowtown in 1875. The Lawrence Institute was the Tuapeka Athenaeum & Mining Institute from 20 June 1865, but was renamed the Lawrence Athenaeum and Mining Society around 1874.

After the dissolution of Otago Province there continued to be new reserves set aside in Port Chalmers and Waikouaiti in 1877, and in 1882 in Oamaru the old courthouse site was vested in the Oamaru Athenaeum & Mechanics' Institute. The Oamaru Borough Council had already taken over funding the institute and the building now houses the North Otago Museum. Tuapeka, Arrowtown, Port Chalmers, Naseby, Clyde, Milton and Riverton were still providing a library service in 1938. The handsome lnvercargill Athenaeum continued to be funded by membership subscriptions and rents from both endowments and the lower floor let as offices and shops.

Generally there were significant variations in the level of official support given to mechanics' and similar institutes by the provincial councils. In the 1873/1874 financial year Otago part funded athenaeums at Dunedin, Invercargill, Cromwell, Blueskin and Waikouaiti, a public library at Clyde and an institute at Roslyn to a total of 1,620 [pounds sterling]. By comparison Auckland in 1874/1875 spent only 909 [pounds sterling], while Canterbury included the museum and other institutions within its seemingly much more generous allocation. Otago was also more liberal when providing reserve land for local institutes than Canterbury.

Central government and mechanics' institutes to 1908

In 1869, following the example set by the 1850 British Public Libraries Act, the New Zealand government passed a public libraries act to encourage the formation of free admission public libraries. Governing bodies could levy a library rate of one penny for every pound value of rateable property. It became two pennies from 1938. However no one immediately took up this enabling legislation and in 1875 there was further legislation to enable both public libraries and mechanics' and similar institutes to accept endowments and enforce rules and regulations. In 1877 the Public Libraries Subsidies Act enabled local bodies to form subscription based lending libraries. That is, library users paid a subscription of at least five shillings a year in order to borrow books. In 1890 hotel workers were seeking wages of a minimum of 20 shillings, or 1 [pounds sterling], a week. The act also allowed for a government grant or subsidy to free nonsubscription libraries, following on from the support given by some of the now dissolved provincial councils.

The new local education boards initially made such library grants and funds were allocated to the different boards on a population basis. From 1882 the department of education took over that function. For example, in 1877 and 1878 the Auckland Education Board made library grants to the Auckland and Tauranga Mechanics' Institutes, the Tokatea, Waiuku and Whangarei Institutes, the separate Auckland Institute, borough libraries at Onehunga, Thames and Gisborne and other local community based libraries. However concern was raised about whether the Auckland Mechanics' institute was eligible, as it was a member only subscription library, although providing a free access reading room. From 1883 to 1887 library grants to Auckland area nonpublic libraries included just the Waiuku, Whangarei and Tokatea Institutes. After 1887 all grants to both public libraries and mechanics' institutes throughout New Zealand were withdrawn.

In 1883, across New Zealand the library subsidy was 30 per cent of the total income of the various libraries, and by 1887 it was nearer 45 per cent. When restored in 1898 such grants went only to public libraries, and this continued to 1929. The amount involved was rather small, being 5,000 [pounds sterling] for the whole of New Zealand in 1877/1878. The maximum reached was 6,000 [pounds sterling], and was only 3,000 [pounds sterling] by 1929. In that year the total education department vote was around 4m [pounds sterling], thus the library subsidy was less than 1 per cent. In 1908 all previous legislation affecting libraries and mechanics' institutes had been consolidated in the Libraries and Mechanics' Institutes Act, and from 1910 public libraries had the newly established New Zealand Library Association to better coordinate their efforts.

It should be noted that Carnegie library grants from 1899 required that there be both a free library lending service and free admission to reading rooms, but only 3 or 4 out of the 18 beneficiaries actually provided a free service. In the Auckland area Onehunga, Hamilton, Cambridge and Thames received Carnegie library building grants. Interestingly, most of the buildings echoed the old institutes, with separate reading and social rooms on either side of a central hall. They were also built in New Plymouth, Hastings, Dannevirke, Marton, Levin, Westport, Greymouth, Hokitika, Fairlie, Timaru, Alexandra, Dunedin, Gore and Balclutha.

Long term contribution to New Zealand society

Commentators on New Zealand mechanics' and similar institutes have often regarded them as mere stepping stones to the formation of public libraries or as early limited attempts at providing adult education, particularly in art and the sciences. The New Zealand mail of 4 November 1871 blamed the failure of mechanics' institutes partly on poor management, but also as much on ignoring people's natural desire for entertainment rather than a continuous diet of the earnest and morally uplifting.

This suggests something analogous to the early debates in New Zealand concerning radio and later television about whether these should primarily be educational or for entertainment.

Thompson (2) identified a total of 96 institutes in New Zealand and there may well have been others. He came to three general conclusions about them. First, as many of the lectures given were scientific in nature such needs were soon overtaken by more specialist scientific societies. Secondly, they became a community rather than a prime learning centre. Thirdly, the majority were formed just to run a library, of sorts.

Belich is more damning, regarding them as

   agents of the mid nineteenth century forebears of
   moral evangelism, intended to fill the spare hours of
   self improving workmen with useful leisure, or at least
   harmless pleasures, such as listening to or reading
   moralising sermons, or playing draughts and reading
   newspapers. Generally speaking, these institutions
   experienced one of three fates: they collapsed, were
   taken over by the respectable and kept their refined
   curriculum, but lost their decent pupils, or they
   became camouflaged beer houses and lost their
   curriculum, but kept their pupils. (3)

The Canterbury area's Oxford Working Men's Club obtained two thirds of its income from bar sales and attracted 70 per cent of the town's menfolk.

Nevertheless, mechanics' institutes and their like had a significant if quite varied impact on New Zealand cultural life, at least to the 1880s. In those areas where mechanics' institutes continued to be successful into the twentieth century, it was by focusing almost exclusively on providing library services. In some centres, such as Nelson, a strong institute did postpone the provision of full free public library service, that is without a subscription. Auckland City Libraries eliminated its subscription charge in 1946, something its librarian, John Ban., had been working towards for years. In the rural areas served by counties, as opposed to boroughs and cities, only the local mechanics' institutes provided some form of library service.

Barr, who was Auckland City Librarian from 1913 to 1952 and wrote the first history of that library, is perhaps the most positive about the contribution of at least one institute, the Auckland Mechanics' Institute. He contends that it

   filled a most important community service during its
   career of nearly 38 years, supplying as it did literary
   recreation to its members and classes of instruction for
   the people, particularly the youths of the city, when no
   other means was available. It also provided for a long
   time the only meeting place for the use of citizens. |n
   its hall many historically important meetings were
   held, and a large number of the flourishing
   organisations--philanthropic, social and commercial
   --of today were conceived and born there. The
   institute's record of service is a worthy one, and its
   promoters deserve our esteem. With extremely
   limited resources it did a great deal to stimulate
   interest in educational and cultural matters among the
   residents and provided them with the means of self
   improvement. In its time it was the intellectual and
   social centre of the city. It organised musical
   entertainments  and lectures by the best lecturers
   available, as well as classes of instruction, which were
   well attended and appreciated. The subjects taught
   included arithmetic, mathematics, architectural and
   mechanical drawing, and there was even a class for the
   study of Maori. An exhibition of fine and useful art
   was another undertaking of importance for which the
   institute was responsible. (4)

What better tribute could there be to the more successful of such institutes? Nevertheless public expectations continued to encourage both specialised societies and agencies of local government to expand adult education and community and library services. When it received positive support from central government from the mid 1930s onwards, this ultimately led to the eclipse of the institutes. Yet legacies from the era of the institutes remain. This can be seen partly in the way that public libraries are still locally funded without direct government financial support, but also in the overwhelming acceptance of public libraries as a vital part of the community.

Jock McEldowney's New Zealand Library Association 1910-1960, published by the association in 1962, makes little reference to what came before. With the exception of some well written histories of individual libraries, much of the contribution of the mechanics' institutes to the development of public libraries has been lost. This is despite the pioneering work done by Arthur Ballard Thompson in his 1945 book (5) on the history of adult education in New Zealand, and by implication on the influence of the mechanics' institutes on the growth of popular education. The history of the New Zealand mechanics' institutes deserves to be restored.

References.

(1) Shukur, R Educating the workers; a history of the WEA in New Zealand Auckland, WEA 1984 p19

(2) Thompson, A Adult education in New Zealand Wellington, NZ Council for Educational Research 1945 pp357-61

(3) Belich, J Paradise reforged Auckland, Penguin 2001 pp178-9

(4) Barr, J Auckland public libraries 1880-1950 Auckland, The Library 1950 pp2-3

(5) Thompson op cit 

Other references

Acts of the New Zealand Parliament: appendices to the Journals of the New Zealand House of Representatives 1854-1929

Auckland Mechanics' Institute records' 1842-1880, Auckland City Libraries, NZ MS 525.

Auckland, Wellington, Nelson, Canterbury, Westland & Otago provincial councils journals 1869-1876

Bush, G Decently and in order Auckland, Auckland City Council 1971

Colgan, W The Governor's gift Auckland, Auckland Public Libraries 1980

Daily Southern Cross 7 June 1870 p 3, 24 May 1872 p 2, 8 June 1870 p 4

Dakin, J Adult education in early Auckland Continuing education in New Zealand 11 (2) 1979 pp48-67

Encyclopaedia of New Zealand 1966 2 pp305-310

Hall, D New Zealand adult education London, Michael Joseph 1970

Kidson, A The Mechanics' Institute Education 20(10) 1971 pp9-11

New Zealand mail 4 November 1871 pp11-12

Northey, G Accessible to all? Libraries in the Auckland Provincial area, 1842-1919 2003 thesis available at www.ak.planet.gen.nz/~gregu/Thesis/Thesis.htm

Thames guardian & mining record 31 October 1872 p2

David Verran Team leader and local history librarian Auckland City Libraries New Zealand

David Verran holds an MA honours degree in history, the diploma of the New Zealand Library School, and has worked extensively in public libraries. He has written book reviews, articles, and biographical profiles for the Directory of New Zealand biography, given public lectures and conducted historical walks. Address: Auckland City Libraries PO Box 4138 Auckland New Zealand tel [phone] [e-mail]