Navies from war to relief: the start of operation Iraqi freedom in 2003, along with the devastation caused by the Indian Ocean tsunami in 2004, have refocused the attention of navies across the world on amphibious missions and manoeuvre from the sea. To this end, across six continents, acquisitions and developments of new amphibious landing support ships and landing craft are proceeding apace.

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The post-Cold War environment has pushed these vessels to the forefront of expeditionary operation requirements--particularly the large Landing Helicopter Dock (LHD) and Landing Platform Dock (LPD) ships which can embark helicopters, tilt-rotors, fixed-wing aircraft, conventional landing craft and air-cushioned landing craft, while also offering substantial space for cargo, troops, equipment and materiel storage. Moreover, many of these vessels also boast additional facilities such as hospitals and medical treatment areas along with 'plug-and-play' command and control facilities from which a commander can establish a headquarters to direct land or coastal operations.

The attractions are obvious. In an global environment where intervention in a lawless failed state is no longer discounted, the amphibious support ship provides a mobile military base from which humanitarian relief, peacekeeping and enforcement, war-fighting, command and control and re-supply can be all be performed--perhaps simultaneously, from one platform. This also removes the need to rely on local facilities that may be located in a very hostile environment. Thus the amphibious support ship becomes the ideal asset for the so-called 'three block war' concept of Marine Corps Commandant General Charles Krulak, by which military forces may be required to perform warfighting, peacekeeping and humanitarian operations simultaneously in a very small urban area. Moreover, such vessels, thanks to high-speed landing craft and rotary aviation, can remain safely beyond the horizon and away from coastal threats.

At the war-fighting end of the spectrum these vessels allow a joint force of naval and land assets to perform manoeuvre from the sea, that is identifying weak points in coastal defences and then executing rapid and determined air envelopments and amphibious landings to secure a beachhead and then move inland to the objective.

As regards humanitarian operations, the significant amount of materiel which an amphibious support ship can carry, along with its delivery assets such as the landing craft and rotary aviation, provide a means to supply humanitarian relief to a disaster area. Helicopters can perform air-sea rescue and survivor search, while troops on board can assist on land with the delivery of aid and upholding law and order. These vessels can also bring their attributes to bear in the role of evacuation from disaster zones or war torn areas, as was seen during Operation Baliste in July 2006 when the Marine Nationale (the French Navy) used its Mistral and Siroco LPDs for the evacuation of European Union citizens from Lebanon.

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Asia

The amphibious renaissance is highly visible in Asia where several countries are re-evaluating their capabilities. China's People's Liberation Army Navy launched their first Type-071 LPD in December 2006. Constructed by Hudong Shipyard in Shanghai the vessel will be able to embark hovercraft and rotary aviation. At 17,600 tonnes, it is the largest amphibious support ship which the People's Liberation Army Navy possesses, compared to its 1600-tonne Type-073, 1650-tonne Type-073IV and 800-tonne Type-074 medium landing ships and the 135-tonne Type-067 and 58-tonne Type-068/069 mechanised landing craft. The acquisition of the Type-071 ship may reflect new thinking regarding amphibious operations beyond Chinese coastal areas. Traditionally, this navy had procured landing vessels with operations against Taiwan in mind. Larger vessels were shunned because they could present larger targets. Moreover distances between the island and the mainland were sufficient for landing craft to perform 'ferry' journeys.

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Formerly the USS Trenton, the Indian Navy took delivery of the INS Jalashwa in June of this year. This LPD represents the first transfer of a US Navy vessel to India and will greatly aid the navy as it enhances its amphibious capabilities. The devastation suffered by the South Asian country after the 2004 tsunami has refocused the government's attention on being able to provide humanitarian relief from the sea. The Navy has also received the INS Shardul in November 2006; a 5689-tonne Landing Ship Tank (LST) of which three will form the class; the other vessels being the INS Kesari and INS Airavat.

The Republic of Korea Navy (Rok Navy) is, meanwhile, reinforcing its amphibious capabilities with the addition of the Dokdo LPX (Landing Platform Experimental) which can lift up to ten Main Battle Tanks, 700 troops, two Lcacs and ten helicopters. In total, three LPX vessels will be delivered from Hanjin Heavy Industries, with the second (Marado) being commissioned in 2010 and the third, Beangnyeong Island, arriving thereafter. As an adjunct to these vessels, the RoK Navy will obtain two LSF-II 'Solgae 631' class Lcacs, also being built by Hanjin, of which one is already in service. With an impressive 81-km/h (44-knot) top speed, these vessels can carry up to 56-tonnes.

Australia

In June 2007 Australia's Prime Minister John Howard told journalists that the country's new 27,000-tonne 'Canberra' class amphibious support vessels which are being built by Spanish shipbuilders Navantia, <<will greatly enhance Australia's ability to send forces in strength when required, particularly in our own region but not, of course, restricted to our region>>. Both vessels will be delivered by 2014. The vessels will have a ski-jump on the flight deck which will allow the operation of AV-8B Harrier aircraft from Allied air wings, but also the F-35 Joint Strike Fighter of which Australia might acquire over a hundred. In addition, the vessels will lift up to 23 of the Australian Army's M1 Abrams MBTs, 1000 troops and operate up to six helicopters.

To the southeast the Royal New Zealand Navy commissioned the HMNZS Canterbury 9144-tonne multi role vessel which incorporates a roll-on/roll-off design and has been built by the Dutch Merwede Shipyard, to perform a host of operations includes humanitarian, peace-support and warfighting mission. RNZN personnel have visited Singapore and Ireland to gain experience in performing amphibious operations. The Canterbury will also house a pair of 60-tonne medium landing craft.

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Europe

France has now received both of its Mistral class LPDs; the Mistral and the Tonnerre, from French shipbuilders DCNS. The vessels have a hospital capable of accommodating 70 patients, while two Lcacs can be operated from the ship or alternatively four conventional landing craft along with 450 troops and 16 helicopters. The French firm Construction Industrielle de la Mediterranee has also unveiled a concept landing catarmaran with a top speed of 50 km/h (27 knots) and a maximum range of 1852 km (1000 nm). The vessel could be configured to act as a landing or a transport ship.

The Marina Militare (the Italian Navy) is, meanwhile, considering a new LHD development. The navy already operates three San Giorgio class vessels which can carry helicopters and landing craft, along with a battalion of troops and their vehicles. The concept talks of a vessel which can carry up to four mechanised landing craft with the ship displacing 20,320 tonnes. To this end, Italian shipbuilder Fincantieri is reported to be studying two different designs.

The Royal Netherlands Navy will receive its second-of-class LPD, the Johan de Witt, which was launched in May from Dutch contractors Schelde Naval Shipbuilding. The ship is variant of the Rotterdam class LPD, which also forms the basis for the British Royal Navy's Bay class landing vessels, but the Johan de Witt is technically an Enforcer class vessel with 'propulsors' as opposed to the shafts of the previous class, and a 16,600-tonne displacement as opposed to the 14,000-tonne displacement of the Rotterdam class. One of the interesting features of the these vessels is that they have low-observable characteristics to minimise the risk of being hit by anti-ship missiles--a particularly relevant addition given the global proliferation of this type as an anti-access weapon.

Future procurement programmes for other European navies as regards amphibious vessels are expected to include a multi-role roll-on/roll-off vessel for the Royal Norwegian Navy, which would be able to move Army units to outof-area operations while also being able to perform transport missions. The Polish Navy, which boasted an impressive amphibious capability during the Cold War, is looking to strengthen this capability once again. The fleet currently includes six Project-767 1691-tonne LSTs, however, in September 2006 the navy conducted an amphibious exercise which saw these Lublin class ships landing PTS-2M and BWP-1 vehicles.

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Portugal will acquire a single Navio Polivalente Logistico (Navpol) amphibious vessel based on the Enforcer class design, but which mixes other features from the Spanish Navy's SPS Principe de Asturias aircraft carrier and the US Navy's San Antonio class LPDs. It will take the fuel system and funnel of the former, and the C4Istar and self-defence systems of the latter. The vessel will displace 12,954 tonnes and will carry up to 30 main battle tanks, 955 combat personnel, including troops and headquarters staff, at up to 35 km/h (19 knots) across an 11,112-km (6000 nm) range. The contract for the vessel with Howaldtswerke-Deutsche Werft of Germany will also include six landing craft and the ship will be delivered in 2010.

Like the Polish Navy, the Russian amphibious fleet is experiencing a reawakening with the procurement of five Project-11711 large landing ships to each carry 300 troops, 60 armoured personnel carriers and up to 13 tanks. The vessels are to be built by the Yantar shipyard and these will be the first amphibious ships which have been built in the country since 1992.

The two vessels of the Galicia class (Galicia and Castilla) are now veterans of operations such as multinational Lebanon evacuation and tsunami relief in the Indian Ocean, and the Spanish Navy will have its capabilities bolstered with the arrival of 14 LCM-1E landing craft, which are being built by Navantia to be delivered from 2008. Interestingly, this class of landing craft is also being evaluated by the Royal Australian Navy to supplement its Canberra class vessels.

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Expected to enter Spanish service by 2009 is the Juan Carlos I Buque la Proyeccion Estrategica (Strategic Projection Ship) which will displace 27,000 tonnes, will carry four landing craft and can also embark Lcacs and landing craft of other nations. The hangar can accommodate either eight AV-8Bs or twelve helicopters and the ship will feature a ski-jump and can house 900 troops. All of this adds up to make the vessel the largest European amphibious ship. It will be deployed from 2010.

At the other end of the spectrum Sweden's Dockstavarvet aluminium boat builders has enjoyed success with its Combat Boat CB 90 series of fast amphibious craft. The vessel has found worldwide appeal operating both as a landing craft and in other roles supporting coastguard and customs operations. The Royal Swedish Navy has taken delivery of 140 of these vessels and the Mexican Navy purchased 40 between 1999 and 2001 and uses the CB 90HMN in the latter role. The Royal Norwegian Navy took delivery of 20 CB 90N designs, which it uses as the basis for its Mobile Hellfire Shore Defence System. Other CB 90s have entered service with the Hellenic Coast Guard and the Royal Malaysian Navy.

Turkey plans to acquire an LPD and LST by 2011. A request for information was issued by the Turkish government in April this year. The acquisition is part of a wholesale reinforcement of the Turkish Navy's amphibious capabilities which will also see the acquisition of four landing craft, a single rigid inflatable boat and 27 amphibious assault vehicles.

With recent operations in the A1 Faw peninsula at the commencement of Operation Enduring Freedom in mind, the British Royal Navy is using offshore raiding craft for riverine, counterinsurgency and anti-narcotics operations. Built by Holyhead Marine, the first of the 40 craft to be purchased were delivered in 2006 and have already been used in the Iraqi theatre, where they have assisted efforts to restrict smuggling operations.

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In November 2006, British defence contractor Qinetiq was commissioned to build the Partial Air Cushioned Supported Catamaran (Pascat). The craft will be constructed as a technology demonstrator intended to evaluate an air-cushioned catamaran as a means of performing littoral operations. With a top speed of 46 km/h (25 knots), the vessel will lift up to 56 tonnes. The contractor believes that the combination of high speed and a variable draught will make the design particularly suitable for beach operations.

Middle East

The British VT Halmatic, together with Abu Dhabi Ship Building, has developed the Seakeeper fast landing craft which was constructed at the latter's composite facility. The Seakeeper is capable of a 65-km/h (35-knot) top speed and uses RollsRoyce FF375S water jets for propulsion. This enables the vessel to perform safely in shallow waters; an important consideration around the Persian Gulf littoral. Other notable developments in the Middle East in terms of amphibious craft acquisition include the purchase of an assault craft from Jordan Boats by the Royal Naval Force of Jordan. The acquisition is part of an initiative to also acquire similar patrol craft.

Finally, the United Arab Emirates Navy will eventually acquire a total of 24 Ghannatha class fast assault craft, also with shallow-water operations in mind. A hydraulically powered ramp allows delivery of up to 42 troops to the shore. The vessels can travel at speeds of 65 km/h (35 knots). A 12.7-mm (0.5-in) OtoMelara weapon will be fitted.

North America

Following its Standing Contingency Force exercise of 2012, the Canadian Forces Maritime Command is planning an investment into its amphibious capabilities. Canada plans to purchase a single new or pre-owned vessel, possibly of an LHD design, although no company has yet been contracted to produce the vessel and Ottawa is yet to release a request for proposals. The project is still being examined.

To the south, the Mexican Navy is assembling its latest Combat Boat CB 90 vessels purchased from Sweden. The boats have a very shallow draft and troops can access the shore via a stern ramp. The vessel can be propelled off the beach by its water jets and the CB 90 acquisition should aid the Mexican Navy in using Special Forces to pursue narcotics traffickers, which often try to outrun naval assets by hitting the beaches, disembarking and running inland.

By far the US Navy operates the world's largest fleet of amphibious vessels and support ships. The famous Tarawa class Landing Helicopter Assault (LHA) ships are now reaching the end of their useful lives and will be replaced by the LHA-R class of vessels. Meanwhile, the Austin class LPDs are to be replaced by the San Antonio class. Looking towards 2020, it is planned that the US Navy amphibious support fleet will consist of Wasp class LHDs, the two classes mentioned above and the Landing Ship Dock Harper's Ferry and Whidbey Island class vessels. This should lead to an eventual complement of around 30 amphibious support ships.

The last of the nine vessels of the San Antonio LPD class, the USS Somerset, will be commissioned by 2011. These vessels are wide enough to navigate through the Panama Canal and can carry up to 800 marines along with two Lcacs and up to four CH-46 Sea Knight helicopters. The LPD-17s has impressive command and control facilities and is of a stealthy design to improve survivability.

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Meanwhile, the US Navy will receive the last of its Wasp class vessels, the USS Makin Island, which can deploy an astonishing 1687 troops, up to 20 F-35B Lightening II combat aircraft along with three Lcacs. The ship displaces 41,826 tonnes and delivery is expected in 2008.

Future US Navy Amphibious Ready and Expeditionary Strike groups will be organised around the LHA-R vessels. These ships will be delivered from 2012 with Northrop Grumman expecting to lay the keel of the first in the class, LHA-6, in December 2008. Over 2800 personnel and troops can be accommodated on these vessels and they will include a hospital for up to 24 patients and two operating theatres, as well as robust command and control and sensor systems and be able to house a headquarters tailored to the mission in hand. Interestingly, the LHA-R class will do away with the well deck found on the preceding Tarawa class and will substitute this with extra hangar space. This translates into the capacity to house 31 aircraft, which can include over 20 F-35s.

The navy will also take delivery of ten MPF (Multipurpose Function) landing craft from Kvichak Marine Industries as high-speed vessels replacing the LCM-8 class landing craft. Even when fully loaded with 30 troops the MPF vessels can reach speeds of 55 km/h (30 knots). The first ten boats have already been delivered and will be followed by an additional four. It is thought that the US Navy could eventually receive up to 18 MPFs. Meanwhile, three of the Navy's famous Lcacs are receiving a wholesale service life extension. The prime contractor for the programme is L-3 Communications Unidye division and the initiative, which was launched in August 2006, will extend the lifespan of these fast landing craft by up to 30 years. The entire project should be completed by March 2009 and will include improvements to the vessels' four Avco-Lycoming TF40B gas turbine engines. Communication and navigation systems will also be overhauled and the craft will be outfitted with a new skirt.

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The US Navy is following the British example of rethinking riverine operations. Operation Iraqi Freedom and the need to perform missions in Iraq's riverine areas such as the Tigris and Euphrates and the Shatt al-Arab waterway prompted the navy to establish Riverine Squadron 1, with a further two squadrons to be formed by 2010. The plans seem to be an echo back to the 'Brown Water Navy' of the Vietnam War, which was used for the patrol of inland waterways during the conflict. To this end, the Navy is planning to procure a vessel that could move troops and their equipment rapidly and help to maintain a constant presence in riverine areas.

Rivron 1, as the first squadron is known, was deployed to Iraq in 2007 and has worked closely with the II Marine Expeditionary Force. Naval Sea Systems (Navsea) Command has asked industry to propose designs for a Riverine Assault Support System and has also performed a survey of existing craft that could be configured in a multi-role fashion to perform a number of missions using the same craft, namely transport, interdiction, command and control and escort. To this end, Northrop Grumman has joined forces with Aluminum Chambered Boats to examine the attributes of the Riverine/ Coastal Warfare programme and will build a vessel as a technology demonstrator. Essentially, the design will be a marriage between the Aluminum Chambered Boat's hull and Northrop Grumman's sensor systems. Moreover, the vessel will be sewn into the US Navy's Forcenet command and control system.

Latin America

The Argentine Navy was to receive two Ouragan LSDs that had been pensioned-off from the French Navy as part of an agreement concluded between Paris and Buenos Aires in 2005. The transfers were to have been completed in 2006, but a row over asbestos levels in the ship caused the deal to flounder. The problem focused on the levels of the hazardous material on the ships that contravened Argentine legislation and has thus left the two ships at their home port of Brest from where they are expected to be sold as scrap. The result is that the Argentine Navy can still be expected at some point in the future to have a requirement for two amphibious support ships to replace or augment the ARA Hercules marine command/transport vessels and the ARA Bahia San Blas assault ship.

To the northeast, the Brazilian Navy has set in motion plans to acquire the Sir Galahad Landing Ship Logistics from the Royal Navy as part of a deal concluded in April 2007. The value of the deal and the likely delivery date of the vessel are still unknown. When the vessel is transferred it will augment the two Landing Docks and singular LST that the navy already operates. Before it is transferred it will be refitted in the United Kingdom and will be renamed the Garcia D' Avila.

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Other Markets

In terms of other likely purchases of amphibious support vessels around the world, the Bangladesh Navy is known to have expressed an interest in acquiring at least one large landing ship, while the Royal Malaysian Navy may look towards buying a multi-role vessel that could assist amphibious operations and perform disaster and humanitarian relief operations and may be procured over the next five years with up to three vessels being purchased. The Thai Navy may obtain up to four LST class vessels by 2015 to replace the vintage LST-511-1152 vessels which the navy already has in service. The Polish Navy may also acquire a single LPD class vessel over the next ten years following lessons learned from out-of-area operations in Iraq and Pakistan.

Amphibious support vessels and their landing craft counterparts have established themselves as the naval platform-of-choice for performing a complex array of tasks from manoeuvrist warfighting operations to humanitarian relief either from the docksideas with the US Navy's deployment of the USS Iwo Jima to New Orleans during the Joint Task Force Katrina relief effort, or from over the horizon.