Napoleon and the battle for Europe: two centuries ago, a new Caesar sought to conquer the world.

The Emperor of France was beyond furious. Months of planning and training his army for the invasion of Britain hung in the balance. Now, in July 1805, Napoleon Bonaparte paced impatiently at Boulogne (bao-LOH-nyuh), on the northern coast of France (see map, p. 21). Where was Admiral Pierre de Villeneuve (veel-nuhv) with the French fleet? he fumed.

Napoleon had sent Villeneuve to lure Admiral Lord Horatio Nelson and his British fleet away from the English Channel. Villeneuve was then supposed to race back to Boulogne, where Napoleon waited to rush his more than 100,000 French troops across the water to England. "If we can be masters of the Channel for six hours, we shall be masters of the world," the Emperor had said.

Villeneuve never showed up. Deciding that his men were too weary, he turned his ships around and sailed south, away from the battle.

"What a navy!" the Emperor exploded when he heard. "What sacrifices for nothing! What an Admiral! All hope is gone!"

Villeneuve took refuge at Cadiz (kuh-DEEZ), a port on the southern coast of France's ally, Spain. Nelson, who could not be fooled for long, headed for the same place. Finally, on October 21, 1805, Nelson found his man--in the waters off Cape Trafalgar (truh-FAL-gur).

Trafalgar

Historians call Trafalgar one of the most important naval battles ever fought. Outnumbered by French and Spanish ships, Nelson won the battle with skill and daring. In the intense fighting, thousands of men were killed, but the British did not lose a single ship.

Nelson, who led the charge, was killed by a sniper. But Trafalgar made him a national hero. In a single day, he smashed the French fleet and ruined forever Napoleon's dream of invading Britain.

Napoleon was far from finished, however. Even before the Battle of Trafalgar was fought, Napoleon had turned away from the English Channel and was marching his Grand Army with dramatic swiftness to his greatest victory.

"I Am the Revolution"

Few military commanders in history have been as bold as Napoleon. A brilliant and fearless general, he earned his soldiers' devotion. The French people came to see him as a solution to their woes.

When Napoleon began his military career, France was embroiled in wars and in internal chaos. The French Revolution of 1789 had overthrown France's King and promised a republic (government by the people). Soon, however, many French despaired that the leaders of the Revolution were as bloodthirsty and power-mad as the kings of the past.

In November 1799, Napoleon used his troops to seize control of the French government. "The Revolution is over," said Napoleon. "I am the Revolution." At the time, many French people were relieved to have a single strong leader in charge again. They even cheered when he made himself Emperor in 1804.

Napoleon brought a kind of stability to France. His social reforms included the Napoleonic Code, a judicial system that is still the basis of French law. But Napoleon was not satisfied with stability. In a series of conflicts that historians call the Napoleonic wars, he sought to bend all of Europe to his will.

"I love power as a musician loves his violin," Napoleon said. Few people have used it with more skill.

Austerlitz

In 1805, Napoleon was opposed by a coalition (alliance) of Britain, Russia, Austria, and Sweden. After the Emperor abandoned the invasion of Britain, he turned to strike at Austria. Russian armies were moving south to help defend Austria, so Napoleon had to act quickly.

The French soldiers made one of the fastest marches in history. In less than six weeks, Napoleon moved his men from Boulogne to the Danube River in Austria. One Austrian army was taken completely by surprise, and surrendered 27,000 men. In November, Napoleon entered Vienna, the capital of Austria, without a struggle.

On December 2, 1805, he out-maneuvered a larger force of Russian and Austrian troops near the village of Austerlitz (OH-stur-lits), in today's Czech Republic. In the bloody fight, Napoleon's men killed 15,000 of the enemy, almost twice the number of French casualties. "Soldiers!" Napoleon addressed his cheering men. "My people will welcome you with joy. You will only have to say 'I was at the battle of Austerlitz' for people to exclaim, 'Behold a hero.'"

After losing the battle, the Russians quickly retreated, and the Austrians sued for peace. In England, Prime Minister William Pitt heard the news with despair. "Roll up that map," he said, pointing to a map of Europe on the wall. "It will not be wanted these 10 years."

Retreat From Moscow

Napoleon seemed unstoppable. Less than a year later, he controlled a territory larger than any since ancient Rome. Even powerful countries such as Prussia and eventually Russia were forced into alliances with France.

But in time, Napoleon's enormous ambition would undo him. The bigger his empire grew, the more unstable it was. Rebellions in captive countries became harder to put down. For France itself, Napoleon's wars became more and more costly.

In June 1812, Napoleon made his greatest mistake--invading Russia. Although he made it all the way to Moscow, the capital, the harsh Russian winter caused Napoleon's soldiers to suffer and die in great numbers. By the time Napoleon got back to Paris in December, only 10,000 of his original 300,000 invading soldiers were standing.

Sent Into Exile

In March 1814, the armies of Prussia and Russia captured Paris. Napoleon surrendered and was exiled to Elba, a tiny island off the Italian coast. A year later, he escaped and made a brief comeback. But on June 18, 1815, Napoleon was defeated by British and Prussian armies at Waterloo. It would be his last battle.

Napoleon was again exiled, this time to the remote South Atlantic island of St. Helena. There, the man who had once held the fate of Europe in his hands spent his last years as a captive of the British. "To die is nothing," he said, "but to live defeated and without glory is to die every day," he said. Actual death came for "the man who would be Caesar" on October 15, 1821.

Napoleonic Trivia

* Napoleon's christening name was Italian: Napoleone Buonaparte. He was born on the island of Corsica one year after it became French property. As a boy, Napoleon resented the French occupation. But he found his calling at the Paris Military Academy, and became a French lieutenant at age 16.

* The buttons on military jacket sleeves were first put there by Napoleon to stop his officers from wiping their mouths, foreheads, and noses on the fabric.

* The Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte used the bee as a symbol of immortality and resurrection. Napoleons red cape is famous for its bee print. Some historians say that the fleur-de-lis was actually a bee.

* Napoleon reportedly carried chocolate on all his military campaigns.

* Napoleon was not murdered, as once was believed. He probably died of a stomach ulcer that turned cancerous.

Your Turn

THINK ABOUT IT

1. How did Napoleon bring stability to France? How did he bring instability?

2. Do you think it is possible to hold an empire as large as Napoleon's together? Why or why not?

QUESTIONS

1. Napoleon was born on an island located in which body of water?--

2. To attack Britain from France, Napoleon's army would have to cross which body of water?--

3. In 1805, Napoleon's navy was defeated in the Battle of Trafalgar. The battle took place just west of which narrow waterway?--

4. Napoleon won which major battle in 1805?--

5. Which empire controlled Serbia during the period shown on this map?--

6. The present-day borders of countries are shown in what color?--

7. Which major river begins near the eastern border of France and flows into the Black Sea?--

8. Which major battle was fought in Russia?--

9. Thousands of soldiers died during Napoleon's retreat from Moscow to Paris. What is the approximate distance in straight-line miles between those two places?--

10. Where and when did Napoleon fight his last battle?--

1. Mediterranean Sea

2. English Channel

3. Strait of Gibraltar

4. Austerlitz

5. Ottoman Empire

6. white

7. Danube

8. Borodino (1812)

9. about 1,500 miles

10. at Waterloo, in 1815

* OBJECTIVE

Students should understand

* Napoleon Bonaparte, probably the most important figure to arise from the French Revolution, once dominated Europe with his conquests.

* BACKGROUND

Napoleon s short-lived empire had brief codas. There were a Napoleon II and a Napoleon III. The former, the Emperor's only son (with Austrian Princess Marie-Louise), never became Emperor. Spirited out of France at age 3, when his father was first deposed, he died of tuberculosis in Austria at 21. Napoleon III was a nephew. His rule, from 1852 to 1870, afforded the French some stability but eventually led to the disaster of the Franco-German War (1870-1871).

* CRITICAL THINKING

RECALLING DETAILS: What was the significance of the Napoleonic Code? (A judicial system, the Code remains the basis of French law.)

COMPREHENSION/OPINION: Napoleon said, "To die is nothing, but to live defeated and without glory is to die every day." What did he mean by that? (A dead person is beyond suffering, but for Napoleon, living "defeated and without glory" was intensely painful.)

* ACTIVITY

MAKING CONNECTIONS: At least two major European symphonic works have a connection to Napoleon: Beethoven's Third Symphony (the "Eroica") and Tchaikovsky's "1812 Overture." Have students research the background of the works and present their findings. Play at least the opening of the "Eroica"--and all of the Tchaikovsky if you can. What significance does the cannon fire at the end of the "1812" have?

STANDARDS

SOCIAL STUDIES, GRADES 5-8

* Power, authority, and governance: How a single strong leader came to power, and how he used his might to build an empire.

* Time, continuity, and change: How Europe was affected by one man's hunger for power.

RESOURCES

PRINT

* Greenblatt, Miriam, Napoleon Bonaparte and Imperial France (Benchmark Books, 2005). Grades 6-10.

* Pietrusza, David, The Battle of Waterloo (Thomson Gale, 1995). Grades 6-9.

WEB SITES

* Foundation Napoleon www.napoleon.org

* Napoleon pbs.org/empires/napoleon

* Match each place important in Napoleon's life in the left column with the correct description of it in the right column.

--16. Austerlitz   A. site of his first exile
--17. Corsica      B. site of his greatest
                      victory
--18. Elba         C. where he was born
--19. Trafalgar    D, site of his final battle
--20. Waterloo     E. where his navy was
                      defeated by Britain

16. B

17. C

18. A

19. E

20. D