Musician's performance anxiety and coping strategies: "in recent years, researchers and pedagogues have recognized performance anxiety as a normal phenomenon that happens to most performing artists at some time, and that it can be dealt with during the preparation phase of the performance".

Problems dealing with musician's performance anxiety have been neglected ill traditional music curricula. The reality is music students and professionals alike experience performance anxiety that can affect the outcome, resulting in less than satisfactory performance. Consequences may be feelings of guilt and shame. In recent years, researchers and pedagogues have recognized performance anxiety as a normal phenomenon that happens to most performing artists at some time, and that it can be dealt with during the preparation phase of the performance. The last three decades saw an influx of research reports and publications on this subject. Empirical research, scholarly writings, instructional materials and more open discussion about the subject have illuminated sources of performance anxiety and coping strategies.

Music as a Social Art Form

K. D. Pruett, a clinical professor of psychiatry at the Yale Child Study Center, theorizes that musicians initially try to ignore the painful dilemma of performance anxiety, then realize the fear, and eventually learn to accept it as an opportunity to embrace the audience. (1) He wrote about an intriguing case scenario of a gifted twelve-year-old musician: This young man played piano for a music school children's string ensemble at age 6. He was fearless during those years and reveled in the attention. At age 8, he joined a boy choir and became the head chorister within three years. His clean tone and stable pitch gained him a reputation and put him in high demand. Things began to change: Approaching adolescent years, perhaps triggered by his parents' divorce, which might have forced him to grow up sooner than he would have otherwise, he began developing sensitivity to nervousness and fear. He now worried about making mistakes, missing entrances and cracking his voice on important notes. He was envious of other kids playing outside seemingly without a worry. Fortunately, further conversation with this young man revealed that he had already begun employing some complex coping strategies, such as giving himself pep talks and imitating a model who seemed to have control over nervousness on stage.

This scenario is an example of a fearless, gifted young child who goes through a narcissistic stage when he is confident, self-absorbed and even grandiose. Public exhibition is natural to a child at this phase. As he or she approaches adolescent years, peer acceptance and criticism become more important than self-acceptance. Thus, the conflict between the self and the other, one of the core sources of stage fright, begins as a developmental process. We ask, "Is the other, for example, audience, enemy or friend?" Perhaps separation between "me and the other" was the cause of Narcissus's self-love and the eventual drowning of self in admiration of the mirror image of himself in the water. The antidote to this problem might be that as the young performer begins to grasp the notion that the audience is not necessarily the other, but I, and the other, are all a part of "us," a different perspective can emerge. Gradually, developing an attitude of appreciating and embracing the audience, instead of ignoring or fearing it, becomes a realistic goal.

James Allen points out that while most young performers take up their art for emotional pleasure and deeper self-satisfaction, the performing arts, in essence, is the most social of all art forms. (2) It is quite contradictory to the usual lifestyle of the musician who practices many hours in a lone practice room and who, for the most part, struggles to compete for self-improvement with the self. It is true that performers, more often than not, perform together, and most performances involve an audience. This social aspect of musical life is not addressed enough in our music training programs. Further, because musicians jealously have to guard their time and energy for practice, this social side of music making is often left unattended by individuals.

Let us think about the building structure in a music school at a university. The architect does his best to isolate every studio and practice room in the building from possible interference. The musician works alone behind the closed door and within formidable soundproof walls. In comparison, in typical offices of a history department or journalism school or even in science labs, the doors tend to be open, and people may talk across the hall between doors and in seminar rooms. Musicians get together to rehearse; this is a time to have fun making music together, time to improve and fine-tune for the final performance. Sometimes, rehearsals are invigorating and fun, and sometimes they are not. Often, the individual's lone practice habits hinder accepting others' ideas and cooperating with one another. Not surprisingly, one study identified performance anxiety and the problems with stand partners as the two most serious problems of musical life. (3) While use of group training to alleviate performance anxiety has been adopted by some researchers, the social aspect or the lack of it, has not been focused on as a factor of performance anxiety.

Musicians' Performance Anxiety

Paul G. Salmon distinguishes stage fright from performance anxiety: Stage fright is the heightened nervous state during a performance; performance anxiety is the vulnerable state in anticipation of performance. (4) A musician's performance often is hindered by the anxiety set prior to the performance, as many anxious thoughts surface about things that may or may not disrupt a person's peace of mind. This anticipatory anxiety produces a chain of physiological, behavioral and cognitive reactions. An awareness of some danger causes fearful thoughts that trigger sweaty palms, dry mouth or trembling hands, that, in turn, cause behavioral responses such as missing notes and forgetting words.

Charlotte Whitaker and Donald Tanner, citing Matthew McKay's Thoughts and Feelings, identified nine distorting thought patterns that have damaging effects on the performer's behavior: tunnel vision; polarized thinking; overgeneralization; mind reading; catastrophizing; personalization; fallacy of power and control; blaming; and should. (5) Tunnel vision is when the individual looks at only one element of a situation and forgets all other aspects. An example is a music student who views his or her upcoming audition as the only thing that matters in life. Polarized thinking refers to a thought condition in which everything is either superb or terrible. An anxious performer tends to think either he or she is very good or not good at all; there is no middle ground. Overgeneralization is when one bad performance or one bad spot is made to represent his or her entire capability. A mind reader tends to make a snap judgment about what others might think. A performer may quickly conclude that no one likes her performance, or the other extreme version is when he thinks everyone may be jealous of his performance.

Catastrophizing is the tendency to magnify a small event to a degree that one thinks everything has declined. It is analogous to making a mountain out of a mole hole. Personalization means taking everything as related to one's personal well-being, personal injury or personal glory instead of being able to separate the person and the task. Fallacy of power and control is a state when a person either feels all-powerful and responsible for everything or feels completely powerless and out of control. Shame and guilt are the outcomes of such fallacy. Blaming is the opposite pole of power and control. Rather than taking charge and responsibility of the situation, one finds someone or something to blame. Finally, should describes a condition when one imposes upon oneself a list of inflexible expectations or rules that can paralyze an otherwise smooth performance. These types of thoughts are automatic and, unless recognized and interfered in some systematic way, the performer can easily put himself in the chain reaction model that sets up pre-performance anxiety. (5, 6)

Musician's stress also can come from the uncertainty about employment, irregular hours, competition with colleagues, poor financial rewards (7) and restricted hours for social and family life. (8) Stuart Dunkel discusses the myriad tribulations of real life in the arts. Unlike the business world, musicians are forced constantly into conditions such as living between reality and fantasy, having to depend on others' approval of one's excellence or worth, having to face fear and anxiety, having to deal with criticism, failure or jealousy, and often being unable to separate self from the work. Dunkel concedes that in the midst of these perilous conditions of making music, musicians create ingenious and incredible coping strategies that make life in music vital and worthwhile. (9)

Anxiety as a Coping Strategy and Other Tactics

In the old school of pedagogy, the antidote to any performance weakness was captioned in three words: practice, practice and practice. Heinrich Neuhaus cites Hoffman's learning methods: Learn a piece at the piano with the music, learn a piece at the piano without the music, learn a piece with the music without the piano and learn a piece without the piano and without the music. Neuhaus added a fifth point: Learn the piece in one's sleep. (10) Obviously, this kind of rigorous preparation is necessary to produce the desired performance. The question is, "Can a performer ever be completely free of the negative influence of anxiety?"

Clearly, some anxiety is helpful for successful performance. Psychologists have labeled a type of heightened state of arousal as a biologically based, motivating force. D. L. Hamman's studies showed that musicians with the highest level of formal training were able to use the anxiety factor for positive performance effect. (11, 12) Wolfe similarly learned that professional musicians used the positive anxiety components, such as arousal and intensity, to promote performance rather than letting the negative elements, like apprehension and distractability, diminish performance quality. (13) In another study. Salmon, Schrodt and Wright found that experienced musicians were able to reach an anxiety peak prior to performance and attained calm control during performance. The study recommended three strategies for coping with performance anxiety: systematic rehearsal mad exposure to performance-related situations; positive and realistic self-statements to counteract unrealistic anticipatory fears; and the combined use of mental imagery and relaxation training to develop anticipatory coping responses. (14) In a Kendrick, Craig and Lawson study, participants were trained to replace self-degrading, negative thoughts with positive task-oriented self-talk. (15) Studies focusing on modification of performance anxiety as a proactive measure found group discussion therapy and systematic desensitization to be effective. (16, 17, 18, 19) Other behavioral techniques used by researchers were meditation and muscle relaxation techniques; (20) attentional training; (21) electromyographic biofeedback training to reduce muscle tension; (22, 23, 24) and musical analysis and improvisation techniques. (25)

Wolfe developed a comprehensive seventy-six-item Performing Musician Coping Inventory in a study using 162 performing musicians. (26) Coping strategies were defined as either problem-focused or emotion-focused. Among the problem-focused were such performance factors as proper eating and being well rested before the performance, lots of dress rehearsals, playing before a small audience and over-learning the music. Wolfe covered social and emotional aspects of performance under emotion-focused factors, which included items like talking to the audience, muscle relaxation, concentration on the music, self-talk, prayer, medication and mental practice. Wolfe concluded that musicians reporting high levels of nervousness and apprehension about performing tended to avoid using strategies that might relieve those symptoms; while musicians reporting high levels of arousal, intensity, confidence and competence: used a wide variety of both problem-focused and emotion-focused strategies.

In his instructional guidebook for auditioning musicians, Dunkel stresses a positive outlook when dealing with internal and social aspects of performing. He stresses the importance of self-reliance and self-realization when facing the audience. Most of all, he reminds us that trusting oneself in a publicly vulnerable situation is the key to overcoming stage fright. (27) After all, once on stage, one has total autonomy. It is too late to try to pretend to be someone else. All she has, momentarily, is the self to offer and share with the audience. Whatever it is we are presenting is the act of giving of self for mutual benefit, enrichment and enjoyment. Only when self-trust is attained and expressed, does trust in others, and consequently mutual trust, become possible.

Timothy Gallwey offers the art of concentration as the ultimate solution to anxiety-free performance in his book, The Inner Game of Tennis. He explains concentration as the act of focusing one's attention to a single object here and now. Gallwey's instruction begins with simply watching the ball with intensely focused attention while playing tennis. Through the simple method of watching the ball with its exact pattern and movement with no other thoughts in mind, one learns the art of effective and deeper concentration.

      One of the most practical ways to increase concentration on the ball is
   to learn to love it! Get to know the tennis ball; appreciate its
   qualities.... Forget for a moment that it is a tennis ball and look freshly
   at its shape, its texture, its feel.... Allow yourself to know the ball
   both intellectually and through your senses. Make friends; do anything to
   start a relationship with it. It will help concentration immeasurably. (28)

Musicians, while focusing on hearing every tone, every phrase, every harmonic change, every rhythmic nuance, and feeling every tactile sense and the emotional response during practice, can train the mind to concentrate on music rather than letting other thoughts enter the mind. Let us think how much more there is to love and behold and concentrate on music compared to a tennis ball. And yet, how often we lose concentration while playing music and let the demonic thoughts enter the mind. Recognizing performance anxiety as a problem, a will to change habits and a step-by-step discipline can help maintain our concentration on the sound and the music making process, which can prevent extraneous thoughts from interfering with the performance energy.

Modifying musicians' performance anxiety proactively at the preparation stage rather than attempting to cure symptomatic manifestations is the best strategy to ensure successful performance. Research shows that performance anxiety can be managed from cognitive, pedagogical, psychodynamic, skills-based and biological perspectives. These management skills can be taught effectively to individuals as well as groups. By keeping performance anxiety levels in check, musicians can focus on conveying music as a form of social art, realizing the performing self and the audience are a friendly community. They can set negative thoughts aside and fixate on the simple joy of sharing music. Ultimately, musicians will transform anxiety into a motivating force for success, learn the art of self-reliance and concentrate on their love of music.

AMT

NOTES

(1.) Pruett, K. D., "Young Narcissus at the Music Stand: Developmental Perspectives from Embarrassment to Exhibitionism." Medical Problems of Performing Artists, 3 (2), (June 1988): pp. 69-75.

(2.) Allen, J. S., "Educating Performers," The Key Reporter (Spring 1992): pp. 5-9. Originally appeared in The American Scholar (Spring 1992).

(3.) Bayer, L. J., The Stress Process in Professional Musicians: An Exploratory Study (University of Cincinnati: Unpublished Dissertation, 1982).

(4.) Salmon, P. G., "A Psychological Perspective on Musical Performance Anxiety: A Review of the Literature," Medical Problems of Performing Artists, 5 (1), (March 1990): pp. 2-11.

(5.) Whitaker, C. S. and Tanner, D. R., But I Played It Perfectly in the Practice Room! (Lanham, New York: University Press of America, 1987).

(6.) Whitaker, C. S., Modification of Psychophysiological Responses to Stress in Piano Performer (Texas Tech University: Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, 1984).

(7.) Steptoe, A., "Stress, Coping and Stage Fright in Professional Musicians," Psychology of Music, 17 (1), (1989): pp. 2-11.

(8.) Cooper, C. L. and Wills, G. I. D., "Popular Musicians Under Pressure," Psychology of Music, 17 (1), (1989): pp. 22-36.

(9.) Dunkel, S. E., The Audition Process, (Stuvesant, New York: Pendragon Press, 1990).

(10.) Neuhaus, H., Die Kunst Des Klavierspiels (1967). Translated by K. A. Leibovitch (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1973).

(11.) Hamman, D. L., "An Assessment of Anxiety in Instrumental and Vocal Performances," JRME, 30 (2), (1982): pp. 77-90

(12.) Hamman, D. L. and M. Sobaje, "Anxiety and the College Musician: A Study of Performance Conditions and Subject Vitriables," Psychology of Music, 11, (1983): pp. 37-50.

(13.) Wolfe, M. L., "Correlates of Adaptive and Maladaptive Musical Performance Anxiety," Medical Problems of Performing Artists, 4 (1), (March 1989): pp. 49-56.

(14.) Salmon, E, R. Schrodt and J. Wright, "A Temporal Gradient of Anxiety in a Stressful Performance Context," Medical Problems of Performing Artists, 4 (2), (June 1989): pp. 77-80.

(15.) Kendrick, M. J., K. D. Craig, D. M. Lawson and P. O. Davidson, "Cognitive and Behavioral Therapy for Musical Performance Anxiety, Journal of Consult Clinical Psychology, 50, (1982): pp. 353-362.

(16.) Wardle, A., "Behavioral Modification by Reciprocal Inhibition of Instrumental Music Performance Anxiety," Research in Music Behavior: Modifying Music Behavior in the Classroom (New York: Columbia University, Teacher's College Press, 1979).

(17.) Appel, S., Modifying Solo Performance Anxiety in Adult Pianists (Dissertation Abstracts International, 35, 1974): 3503A, 1074.

(18.) Norton, G. R., L. MacLean and E. Wachna, "The Use of Cognitive Desensitization and Self-Directed Mastery Training for Treating Stage Fright," Cognitive Therapy and Research, 2 (1), (1978): pp. 61-64.

(19.) McCune, B., Functional Performance Anxiety Modification in Adult Pianists (Columbia University: Unpublished Dissertation, 1982).

(20.) Whitaker (1984).

(21.) Kendrick, et al.

(22.) Levee, J. R., M. J. Cohen and W. H. Rickles, "Electromyographic Biofeedback for Relief of Tension in the Facial and Throat Muscles of a Woodwind Musician," Biofeedback and Self-Regulation, 1, (1976): pp. 113-120.

(23.) Morasky, R. L., C. Reynolds and L. E. Sowell, "Generalization of Lowered EMG Levels During Musical Performance Following Biofeedback Training," Biofeedback and Self-Regulation, 8, (1983): pp. 207-216.

(24.) LeVine, W. R. and J. K. Irvine, "In Vivo EMG Biodfeedback in Violin and Viola Pedagogy," Biofeedback and Self-Regulation, 9, (1984): pp. 161-168.

(25.) McCune.

(26.) Wolfe, M. L., "Relationships Between Dimensions of Musical Performance Anxiety and Behavioral Coping Strategies," Medical Problems of Performing Artists, Vol. 5, No. 4, (December 1990): pp. 139-144.

(27.) Dunkel.

(28.) Gallwey, Timothy, The Inner Game of Tennis (New York: Bantam Books, 1974): pp. 107-108.

Sang-Hie Lee, a pianist and piano pedagogy specialist, is an associate professor of music at the University of South Florida in Tampa. She has contributed articles to music journals and has performed widely in the United States, Canada and Italy.