Multicultural training in parks and recreation education programs.

More than 50 years ago, Gunnar Myrdal (1944) observed that African-Americans living in the United States had different leisure lifestyles than did white Americans. Likewise, many leisure scholars of past years have had similar thoughts concerning different cultures having distinct leisure lifestyles. Kaplan (1960) acknowledged that African-American families living in the United States had very different spending expenditures on recreation than did white families. De Grazia (1962) pondered whether Native Americans had leisure lifestyles similar to those of the mainstream population in America. In examining public recreation and park programs in the states of Connecticut, New York, and New Jersey, Kraus (1968) found differences between African-Americans and white Americans in sports, cultural programs, and other recreational activities.

Although there have been recent articles written regarding the need of recreation and leisure services providers to gain a multicultural perspective for planning leisure (Dieser, in press; Edginton, Jordan, DeGraaf & Edginton, 1995; Holland, 1997; Jordan, 1996; Kraus, 1994; Peregoy, Schliebner & Dieser, 1997), sparse attention has been given to such concerns in higher education (Magner, 1996). The purpose of this article is twofold. First, to investigate whether university education programs in parks and recreation studies include multicultural education within their curricula. Second, to provide a framework to infuse multicultural knowledge as a core part of education curriculum in park and recreation training programs.

As the American population becomes more diverse, leisure professionals will increasingly be called upon to develop programs for individuals and groups from different cultures (Dieser, in press; Godbey, 1991; Holland, 1997). Ignoring cultural variation is a process of being culturally encapsulated (Pedersen, 1994). Park and recreation education programs that ignore cultural variation in curriculum development contribute to the process of cultural encapsulation. Understanding if education programs infuse multicultural education into curricula would help discern whether or not these programs are culturally encapsulated.

Graduate-Level Programs

To gain a better understanding of the current status of park and recreation education programs, the authors have conducted a telephone survey to assess curricular inclusion (Peregoy & Dieser, 1996). The survey targeted park and recreation graduate training programs across the United States and mirrored a survey previously reported by Peregoy et al. (1997). Graduate training programs were targeted because park and recreation professionals with advanced degrees develop advanced specializations and professional problem-solving skills (Edginton et al., 1995). The sampling frame used to identify graduate training programs was the "National Recreation and Park Association Curriculum Catalog 1996-1997." Respondents to the survey were graduate program coordinators. Of the possible 66 graduate programs, 40 programs were surveyed. Selection of graduate training programs to be surveyed was based upon a simple random sampling strategy. The survey consisted of the following four questions:

1. Do the curriculum requirements in the graduate program include issues of service for individuals who are disabled?

2. Do the curriculum requirements in the graduate program include issues of service for groups and individuals that are from differing cultures and ethnic backgrounds?

3. Do the curriculum requirements in the graduate program include issues of service for gender differences?

4. Do the curriculum requirements in the graduate program include issues of service specifically for women?

Thirty-three of the 40 programs surveyed had curriculum requirements for issues related to individuals with disabilities. Only 13 programs had curriculum requirements regarding issues of service for groups and individuals from differing cultures and ethnic backgrounds. Thirteen programs had specific requirements related to gender differences, and 10 programs had requirements concerning issues of service specifically for women. Table 1 presents the findings of the survey.

TABLE 1. DIVERSITY ISSUES IN GRADUATE-LEVEL PROGRAMS

Curriculum Requirements
                                         Yes    %     No     %
Individuals with Disabilities            33     80     7    17
Groups and individuals from differing
cultures and ethnic backgrounds          13     32    27    68
Gender Differences                       13     32    27    68
Women Specifically                       10     25    30    75
TOTALS                                   69     43    91    57

The results of this survey provide information on graduate training-program responses to diversity. More than one-half of the training programs did not have any type of multicultural education infused into their curriculum. Also, more than one-half of the training programs lack curriculum requirements concerning gender differences and women. The lack of multicultural education that future leisure professionals gain while enrolled in park and recreation education programs can have significant consequences.

The Consequences of Cultural Encapsulation

A crisis in the city of Oka in Quebec, Canada, provided an example of a municipal government's cultural insensitivity in expanding leisure services. One popular Canadian magazine offered the following report (Taylor, 1990): "It started with a dispute over a golf course. But it erupted into a gun battle that left one Quebec provincial police officer dead and laid bare decades of bitterness and distrust" (p. 16). The city of Oka was about to begin construction to add nine holes to its golf course. The problem was that the nine new holes were near a Mohawk Indian burial ground (Taylor, 1990), land considered to be sacred (Carmichael, Hubert, Reeves & Audhild, 1994). The crisis in Oka was much more than an issue concerning the expansion of a golf course, it was a matter of the protection of sacred land and related land-claim issues. At Oka, Mohawks claim the land that the golf course occupies, and an additional 250-square-mile tract, belongs to them and has historical roots (Taylor, 1990).

Although the Oka crisis concerned land-claim issues argued for more than 100 years, cultural awareness by the city's park and recreation department could have mitigated this conflict. Most recreation and park facilities conduct some type of site analysis to determine if a proposed site is appropriate (Christiansen, 1977). During a site analysis, it is common to investigate surrounding tracts of land. A comprehensive site analysis includes "on-site and off-site cultural... determinants," (Christiansen, 1997, p.47). Understanding the Mohawk values concerning the burial ground could have been facilitated via an analysis of the surrounding land, and cultural sensitivity could have eased tension.

Lack of Diversity

The National Park Service has become aware that ethnic minorities are largely absent from most major national parks. Goldsmith (1994) suggested that the absence of ethnic minorities is related to three variables: (1) famous parks are isolated from culturally diverse population centers; (2) visitation has been traditionally confined to upper-class, select groups; and (3) ethnic minorities do not see themselves mirrored in park-service employees. The National Park Service has become aware of the lack of ethnic minorities visiting national parks and has implemented strategies to increase the visitation of these groups. The history of the National Park Service illustrates cultural encapsulation. Until recently, the National Park Service has evaded alternative realities of ethnic minorities; training programs mirror the values of dominant groups in American society. Multicultural education in park and recreation education programs may help prevent cultural value conflicts.

Multicultural Training Design

Multicultural training must be introduced into park and recreation training programs. Holland (1997 suggested that multiculturalism could be incorporated into recreation education in three ways. First by establishing an interdisciplinary general education core curriculum; second, by providing a multicultural curriculum; and third, by teaching from a multicultural framework.

Pedersen (1994) discussed an in-depth multicultural training plan designed to increase an individual's understanding in three areas: awareness, knowledge, and skills. Awareness focuses on conscious raising; awareness can be stimulated via field trips, simulations, role plays and role reversals, and bicultural observation and discussions; knowledge involves acquiring accurate information about a culture. Knowledge can be facilitated by guided self-study with a reading list, lectures, discussions, panel discussions, interviews, observation and audiovisual presentations. The skill component combines awareness and knowledge, so that the trainee can become competent when working with individuals from different cultures. Skill acquisition can be fostered through internship experiences, fieldwork placements, and field trips to diverse communities. Using Pedersen's (1994) multicultural training plan, Peregoy and Dieser (in press) developed a multicultural competency curriculum designed for the field of therapeutic recreation. Although the curriculum is designed to help education programs and professionals in the field of therapeutic recreation, all students involved in leisure education programs can increase their awareness, knowledge, and skills by following the educational suggestions contained in the curriculum.

Multicultural Course Models

There are four types of training models that may be used to integrate cultural awareness, knowledge, and skills into a curriculum: separate-course, interdisciplinary, integrated, and area-of-concentration. Peregoy et al. (1997) described how these training programs might be implemented into recreation education programs.

In the separate-course model, multiculturalism is limited to one specific course concerning the study of one or several ethnic/cultural groups. The purpose of this model is to provide cultural awareness. The interdisciplinary model incorporates course work from outside the student's department. This model provides an in-depth study of one or several ethnic groups. The integration model infuses multiculturalism into all of the courses in the curriculum; cross-diversity content is integrated throughout the curriculum. This model has been described as the "preferred model" (Pedersen, 1994). The last model, area-of-concentration, has a strand of courses that focuses on one or several minority groups.

Each model has specific strengths and weaknesses. A paramount weakness of the separate and interdisciplinary models is that they do not provide a generalized understanding of common experiences of oppressed populations. Thus, awareness of the self as an ethnic being may not be developed. A strength of the separate model is that it is the easiest to implement. The chief strength of the interdisciplinary model is that an in-depth study of one or several ethnic/minority groups may be facilitated. Strengths of the integration model are that students can become multiculturally competent by acquiring cross-cultural communication skills, the awareness of one's attitude toward minority populations, increased cultural-diversity knowledge, and the development of a multicultural identity. The weaknesses of the integrated model include the fact that all faculty members would have to gain multicultural competencies, and budget restraints may hinder courses that cover all groups. The key strength of the area-of-concentration model is that students gain a vast study of minority population. A drawback of this model is that too much specialization may interfere with a student's ability to gain employment.

At the very least, a separate-course model of a curriculum on multicultural issues would help students in park and recreation training programs become culturally aware. The authors prefer the integrated model because it will help potential park and recreation professionals acquire cross-cultural communication skills, develop awareness of attitude toward minority populations, gain cultural-diversity knowledge, and develop a multicultural identity.

Conclusion

With each passing day, our country becomes more culturally diverse. It is important that leisure professionals understand the needs of individuals and ethnic groups. Yet, more than one-half of all graduate-level park and recreation programs do not have multicultural program requirements. It is crucial that multicultural awareness, knowledge, and skills by infused into the curricula of these programs.

References

Carmichael, D.L., Hubert, J., Reeves, B., & Audhild, S. (1994). Sacred sites, sacred places. New York: Routledge.

Christiansen, M.I. (1977). Park planning handbook. Ney York: John Wiley and Sons.

De Grazia, S. (1962). Of time, work, and leisure. New York: Twentieth Century Fund.

Dieser, R.B. (in press). Pluralistic leadership in recreation and leisure planning: Understanding Minority/Ethnic identity development. Journal of Leisurability. Manuscript accepted for publication.

Edginton, C.R., Jordan, D.J., DeGraaf, D.G., & Edginton, S.R. (1995). Leisure and life satisfaction. Madison, WI: Brown and Benchmark.

Godbey, G. (1991). Planning for leisure in a pluralistic society. In T.L. Goodale & P.A. Witt (Eds.), Recreation and leisure: Issues in an era of change (pp.137-148). State College, PA: Venture Publishing.

Goldsmith, J. (1994). Designing for diversity National Parks, 68(5/6), 20-21.

Holland, J. (1997). Enhancing multicultural sensitivity through teaching multiculturally in recreation. Park and Recreation, 32(5), 42-50.

Kaplan, M. (1960). Leisure in America: A social inquiry. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

Kraus, R. (1968). Public recreation and the Negro. New York: Center for Urban Education.

Kraus, R. (1994). Leisure in a changing America: Multicultural perspectives. New York: MacMillain College Publishing Company.

Magner, D. (1996). Fewer professors believe Western culture should be the cornerstone of the college curriculum. Chronicle of Higher Education, 43, 3.

Myrdal, G. (1944). An American dilemma. New York: Harper.

National Recreation and Park Association. (1995). Curriculum catalog: Information about park and recreation curriculums in colleges and universities. Arlington, VA: Society of Park and Recreation Education.

Pedersen, P. (1994). A handbook for developing multicultural awareness (2nd ed.). Alexandria, VA: American Counseling Association.

Peregoy, J.J. & Dieser, R.B. (in press). Multicultural awareness in therapeutic recreation: Hamlet living. Therapeutic Recreation Journal. Manuscript accepted for publication.

Peregoy, J.J., Schliebner, C.L., & Dieser, R.B. (1997). Diversity issues in therapeutic recreation. In D.M. Compton (Ed.), issues in therapeutic recreation: Toward the new millennium (pp.275-298). Champaign, Illinois: Sagamore Publishing.

Peregoy, J.J., & Dieser, R.B. (1996). Multicultural aspects of parks and recreation education programs. Unpublished raw data.

Taylor, G.W. (1990, July 23). The battle of Oka. MacLean's, 103(30),16-19.

RELATED ARTICLE: Research Into Action: The Impact of Cultural Diversity

Introduction

The growing awareness of cultural diversity in North America is best described as dramatic. Predictions for the future of cultural shifts in the United States alone are significant. Traditional European value systems so long dominant are being blended with those of many other cultures from throughout the world. For example, the west coast of North America has strong Asian cultural influences, the southwestern United States has strong Hispanic cultural influences, and southern Florida has strong Cuban communities. Cultural shifts are not restricted to specific regions. They are occurring almost everywhere, but at different levels of intensity. And, cultural diversity is not restricted to particular nationalities; it includes issues of gender and individuals with disabilities

The development of cultural-diversity programs has been a direct outcome of North America's changing diversity. Corporations, organizations, and the government have invested considerable resources into training and awareness programs. The presence of multicultural education in parks, recreation, and leisure programs in North America has been largely undocumented. A survey conducted by the authors of this month's "Research Update" suggests that at the graduate level there may be a void in cultural-diversity education.

Impact of the Research

The research presented here suggests that graduate programs in park and recreation studies are potentially deficient in preparing students for a changing marketplace. The inability to be aware of or to understand the importance and impact of cultural uniqueness could be perceived as a lack of preparedness by employers. The consequences of such deficiencies could range from minimal to very significant. As community characteristics and populations change, park and recreation professionals need to be at the lead in facilitating community awareness, continuity, and integration.

Practitioners who receive multicultural-awareness education as part of their program of study have a much higher potential for success than do those who have not taken relevant courses. The goal of any such educational program should be to increase the awareness, knowledge, and skills of those involved

How to Use This Research

1. Academic programs in the parks, recreation, and leisure fields need to determine at what level multicultural education is most appropriate graduate or undergraduate

2. Academic programs need to determine what constitutes minimal competencies for multicultural education for undergraduate and graduate programs.

3. Investigations and recommendations should be made regarding the most appropriate methods or collection of methods for the implementation and delivery of multicultural education, Four suggested models include separate-course, interdisciplinary delivery, integrated delivery, and area-of-concentration.

For More Information

Pedersen, P. (1994). A handbook developing multicultural awareness (2nd ed.), Alexandria, VA: American Counseling Association.

Peregoy, J.J., Schliebner, C.L., & Dieser, R.B. (1997). "Diversity issues in therapeutic recreation." In D.M. Crompton (ed.) Issues in therapeutic recreation: Toward the new millennium (pp.275-298). Champaign, IL: Sagamore Publishing.

Research Into Action is published monthly by the Society of Park and Recreation Educators, National Recreation and Park Association. As an accompaniment to "Research Update," its goal is to turn research findings into field action by highlighting management strategies. Founding editors are Dr. Ruth Russell and Dr. Daniel D. McLean, Department of Recreation and Park Administration, Indiana University.

Rodney B. Dieser is currently a doctorate student in the Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Studies at the University of Northern British Columbia. John Joseph Peregoy, Ph.D. is an assistant professor in the Department of Educational Psychology at the University of Utah.

Research Update is edited by Dr. Irma O'Dell of Southern Illinois University at Carbondale.