Morale Training in Foreign Armies.

Analysis of foreign military literature on problems of ensuring national security leads to the conclusion that the military-political leadership of the world's major countries sees high morale of the armed forces as one of its priorities. This presupposes high morale and psychological stability of both the individual serviceman and the military unit as well as the armed forces as a whole.

Structurally, morale and psychological stability, according to U.S. military experts, include the following basic elements: discipline, morale, a sense of commitment, self-control, a sense of self-respect, integrity, and devotion to military duty. Work with personnel is based on American values, the American way of life, loyalty to the national flag and the president as well as maintenance of the traditions of the armed forces, arms and branches of service, and units and sub-units.

It is noteworthy that commanders are greatly assisted in their work by chaplains. The U.S. military-political leadership sees the church as a major institution playing a major role in promoting moral principles and norms of conduct, educating military personnel in the spirit of moral values established in society. Religious indoctrination is designed to develop such qualities in military servicemen as devotion, loyalty, responsibility, discipline, tolerance, physical and spiritual harmony, high morale, and selflessness. In future, religious work in the armed forces will be increasingly geared to strengthen stereotypes of social conduct and build up the conviction that any tasks assigned must be absolutely carried out.

At the same time, a seminar on France's international security and military doctrine stressed that in view of the current military-political situation it is necessary to revise the basic principles of morale training in the French armed forces--from the traditional confrontation-based type to participation in peacekeeping missions.

Experience shows that the strong aspects of morale in NATO militaries are as follows: a high level of individual professional training and constant aspiration to upgrade it; loyalty to the country and its state system; a sense of pride for the country and its armed forces; respect for the traditions of a given military unit and the armed forces as a whole; conviction that arms and military equipment entrusted to the serviceman are of superior, unique quality; and high psychological preparedness for the start of military operations.

At the same time analysis points to some negative aspects of their morale: over-emphasis on material incentives; disrespect for the enemy and a trend to overestimate one's strength; over-sensitivity to the absence of creature comforts and failures (loss of initiative in the course of combat action can seriously weaken morale); racial prejudices; extreme forms of individualism, careerism, alienation and tension in interpersonal relations; alcohol and drug abuse; and sexual harassment of women officers, and sexual perversion.

The main factors that, according to foreign experts, can enhance morale are as follows: further strengthening and building up of the country's military industrial potential and maintaining it on a level responding to the contemporary military-political situation; intense morale training of all categories of personnel with special priority given to operational and combat training; enhanced social protection of military servicemen, in particular provision of better incentives to personnel; and implementation of measures to enhance the level of professionalism of military command and control agencies.

An important role in the efforts by state and military leadership in foreign countries to maintain the necessary level of combat readiness and capability of the armed forces belongs to morale/psychological training of personnel (MPT) along the following lines: development of high military-professional qualities; inculcation of a sense of patriotism and loyalty to national values; building a positive motivation for military service; developing the ability to conduct sustained combat action under extreme conditions, and physical training.

Basic MPT tasks are as follows: building a conviction that the state and its institutions are truly democratic, that their moral values are superior to the values of the rest of the world, and that the armed forces are vital for protecting national interests; propagation of ideas about the existence of military threats; shaping an enemy stereotype; inculcation of the idea that any action against the enemy is morally justified and right; building up self-control and a sense of responsibility in any circumstances; developing the ability to stand up to the enemy's information/psychological impacts of any kind; and social protection of rights and privileges of all categories of military servicemen, including retired military servicemen.

Analysis of the MPT system in most NATO member states points to its following

characteristics and specifics: an efficient setup on virtually all levels of military organization (especially in command and control structures); diversification and strict subordination of corresponding services and agencies; availability of an adequate logistical and financial MPT command and control base combined with highly qualified personnel; well defined methodological and ideolcgical principles; effective legislative support; consistency and integration; the unity of training and indoctrination, and well thought through and coherent organization of practical activity.

There are special MPT forms and programs.

Thus, information/indoctrination work has the following objectives: inculcation among military servicemen of views and convictions in conformity with the character of state policy; provision of military command and control agencies and the officer corps with prompt and reliable military-political and professional-social information; informational impact on servicemen's consciousness and conduct with the aim to build up motivation to perform training and combat tasks; filling servicemen's cultural, religious and information needs; promotion of military service; creation and promotion of a positive image of the armed forces in public consciousness, etc.

The information/indoctrination system has the following distinguishing features: a diversified information support structure, as a rule, down to the battalion level; highly qualified information specialists at all levels; effective informational/methodological support for unit commanders; and intensive use of the religious factor.

Forms and methods of information work vary in different militaries. Thus, after the unsuccessful war in Vietnam, the Pentagon came to the conclusion that it was necessary to overhaul the entire system of military-political work since, in the opinion of U.S. experts, it was shortfalls in the information sphere, including on the public level, that led to the "Vietnam syndrome." To rectify the problem, a new system was set up to propagate the advantages of military service and build positive motivation among military servicemen, based on a special command information program of the U.S. Department of Defense. The program was designed to help commanders on all levels work effectively on socio-political (ideological/theoretical) and psychological aspects of morale in the U.S. military. Targets of its impact are primarily enlisted and NCO personnel of regular troops and reserve components, DoD civilian personnel, retired officers and members of their families. The program includes a set of socio-political and psyc hological principles and procedures that are used to inculcate ideas, values and moral standards adopted in the state and the armed forces. The program's principal objective is to influence the consciousness and conduct of personnel to prepare it politically, morally, and psychologically to perform assigned missions.

It is indicative that selection of the aforementioned lines of activity is necessitated by corresponding negative phenomena in the military and is designed to neutralize or eradicate them. The main forms of impact on personnel are suggestion and training and the use of special political terminology and concepts to influence consciousness and conduct. Furthermore, indoctrination includes the objective of making servicemen accept ideals and values inculcated by their commanders as axioms, suppressing their ability for independent thinking.

A major role in the information/indoctrination work is played by mass media, including military media. Owing to their sense of immediacy and their targeted impact, they are especially effective in building up morale in the troops. To this end, the United States uses a diversified network of radio and television stations and communication channels. There are 9,200 commercial and 1,700 government controlled radio stations (400 of them are ground based stations used for purely military purposes or leased from civilian agencies) and there is a great number of television channels (both government-controlled and commercial). The radio and television network for U.S. troops in Europe alone includes nine radio stations and four TV studios. In addition, there is also cable television. Radio broadcasting for military servicemen is conducted 20 hours a day; importantly, the beginning and end of television programming begins and ends with the raising (lowering) of the U.S. national flag, respectively.

According to media experts, brief video footage produces a far more effective impact on servicemen's consciousness than a long article or speech. In this connection, some states set up special units to prepare military radio and video materials. Thus, the audiovisual systems department of the French Armed Forces Information and Public Relations Service annually produces, independently or in collaboration with civilian organizations, about 30 films, more than 20 video materials, 70 video clips, several video reports, 700 photo reports, and 12,000 video cassettes with various news and entertainment material. In wartime, joint commands of the U.S. Armed Forces are to deploy special PR centers.

In addition to television and radio, the U.S. military leadership gives special priority to the press. An appropriate agency in the U.S. Armed Forces provides material to more than 2,500 newspapers published in the country, with a total circulation of more than 102 million copies. The Defense Department itself publishes more than 20 journals and there are about 80 journals in the various branches of service. Realizing the importance of the "material" element in the American value system, heads of U.S. military media devote considerable attention to publication of materials on compensation packages, privileges, exemptions, and perks for military servicemen with up to 50 percent of space given over to this subject.

One effective form of information support in the course of combat training in foreign militaries are in-service briefings on current events. Implementation of guidelines issued by the Department of Defense and approved by the defense secretary, is of major practical importance. Thus, a guideline on information support principles, issued by former Defense Secretary Dick Cheney said in particular that provisions of the law on freedom of information were to be followed in both letter and spirit. Furthermore, it was stressed that information would be withheld only when it could have negative effect on national security or threaten the security or privacy of persons who served in the Armed Forces.

In recent years, foreign militaries have been giving increasing priority to computer technology as a means of providing information to personnel. There are three main lines of its application for the purpose: production and storage of information and reference materials, the use of simulation computers in combat and morale training, and the use of computer video games for leisure and entertainment. Indicative in this respect is computer equipment used by the national training center at Fort Irving and the integrated training center at Fort Shaffi (USA). Such interactive networks as Lifeline in the Navy; a network for servicemen's families in the Air Force, and a DoD system, Access, designed to monitor the quality of life, in addition, not only provide regular information but also surveys and an effective feedback channel. [1] Germany is implementing a program to produce 650 new computers for the Bundeswehr to be used in the Heros information support and command and control system of the FRG Armed Forces, wor th 1 billion Deutsche marks.

A special role in some Western armies is played by the PR and propaganda services, designed to inform military servicemen and build up the positive image of the Armed Forces and military service in their minds as well as in the public mind. Propaganda of military service, modern military equipment, and social security guarantees for military servicemen is the subject of PR activity at the numerous recruiting points, scattered across the country, and of officer training services at colleges and universities. One key problem for military PR specialists is to build a role model for young people.

The U.S. Department of Defense has, since 1975, annually conducted surveys of approximately 10,000 young men and women to study their attitude to military service. To overcome the negative trend that emerged in the early 1990s--namely, a visible drop in the number of young Americans wishing to serve in the Armed Forces--the military department substantially increased funding for PR programs (in the 1995-1998 period, it effectively doubled, compared to 1994). [2]

In working out principles and directions of force development and military reform, the military-political leadership of West-European countries and the United States also devotes considerable attention to organization of social and legal education programs for military servicemen. Thus, in Germany, enlisted personnel and junior officers elect, by secret ballot, one representative each to deal with problems affecting servicemen's personal interests, from among candidates proposed by command. Under current military regulations, these confidants act as intermediaries between commanders and personnel. In addition, to build up the positive image of the Armed Forces, commanders normally exempt them from extra duties.

In the United States, a major instrument ensuring the socio-economic rights of military servicemen are special program developed by the DoD. Their main objectives are as follows: maintenance of morale of military servicemen and their family members; improving the effectiveness of their work; enhancing the positive image of military service; maintaining the social, financial, physical, and intellectual status of military servicemen and their family members on a high level; provision of employment to servicemen's family members and enhancing their educational levels; creation of conditions for a rational use of off-duty time by military servicemen and their family members; and provision of favorable living standards for military servicemen and enhancing their feeling of security. In addition, the U.S. military-political leadership believes that only equal starting up opportunities for military servicemen from all ethnic groups can ensure their high morale, ensuring the unity and cohesion of armed forces in the face of external threats.

Once every four years, the U.S. Department of Defense prepares a special report on social security pro grams for military servicemen, formulating proposals and recommendations on ways of improving the system. By tradition, this report serves as a base for Congressional debate on appropriate draft laws. An official enforceable legal document--planning directives by the defense secretary for fiscal years 1998-2003--points out that raising the living standards of military servicemen directly affects the retention of military personnel, their morale and combat readiness. The U.S. Defense Department adheres to the following principles: enhancing the living standards by increasing compensation packages; making servicemen's lives more predictable; providing high-quality medical services and housing to personnel in areas of permanent deployment; providing better education opportunities; ensuring equitable living conditions at all installations and in all branches of service; providing reliable feedback channels for military servicemen and their families; and maintaining the team spirit.

The U.S. military leadership sees the main priority in the 1998-2003 period in providing equal compensation packages for the entire personnel regardless of the branch of service they are affiliated with. Meanwhile, monthly salaries are constantly growing. Another basic component of the compensation package is pension security. The U.S. military leadership acts on the assumption that every military serviceman should be confident that after he completes his service, he and his family will be well provided for.

Today, foreign military command also gives high priority to the family, recognizing its important role in providing favorable conditions for military servicemen in performance of their duties. Thus, in the course of the war in the Persian Gulf (1991), military departments took steps to ensure constant contact between military servicemen and their families, including cut-rate or free telephone service. Subsequently, the "family hour"--the time for collective viewing of video messages from home (five minutes per serviceman)--became highly popular with military servicemen. In addition, considerable attention was given to the families of servicemen deployed in the Persian Gulf zone. A very active role was played by family support centers--in all, 126 in U.S. forces based in Europe (including 83 in the FRG). FRG local authorities and public organizations also provided assistance to families: charity events, excursions, and reduced rent.

One traditional component of morale training is psychological training (psychological work), designed to ensure psychological resistance of personnel to external impacts. This work is conducted in an integrated, intensive and continuous way in the course of daily routine, training exercises, and special training camp sessions. The core of psychological training is constituted by realistic training programs which are not only arduous but also dangerous, posing a risk to servicemen's life. Considering the principle of realistic training the most effective in enhancing personnel's psychological resistance and preventing loss of morale in the course of combat operations, the U.S. military command places a special emphasis on preparing servicemen for action in a real-life combat situation.

Analysis of literature and combat practice in foreign militaries points to the following principal directions and methods of psychological training: modeling a realistic image, tactics and combat capabilities of a possible adversary; preparation for action in natural-geographic and weather-climatic conditions of a region of possible combat action; modeling a realistic, multi-dimensional picture of modern warfare; creating, in the course of combat training, of physical and psychological conditions characteristic of modern warfare; consolidation of military sub-units, fostering a climate of mutual support and mutual aid; expanding military servicemen's abilities to resist stress factors by mastering special psychological techniques; and psychological assistance and rehabilitation.

Another important aspect of ensuring the required level of morale and psychological condition of armed forces personnel is organization of the leisure time of military personnel. Improving the moral climate and organization of the leisure time of military servicemen and their families play an important role in morale training. This includes meetings with and concerts by popular actors, singers, and bands. Wide use is made of modern computer technology based on the Internet (the so-called cyber-cafes), modern libraries and cultural and health building facilities.

To organize effective recreation of armed forces personnel, there are good resort facilities both at home and abroad. The U.S. Department of Defense has a special directorate that developed a standard leisure and recreation program for all branches of service. By and large, U.S. experts believe, cultural and leisure activities help build the image of the armed forces as a setup requiring rigorous and undeviating performance of duties but at the same time guaranteeing effective compensation for the rigors of military service.

Command of the Norwegian Armed Forces, in the course of cultural and leisure activities, gives increasing attention to moral and ethical education of personnel, including preventive action to identify right extremist sentiments and the use and storage of illegal drugs among military servicemen. Thus, any film to be shown at military bases is to be approved by the Manpower Acquisition and Media Control Center. As of the fall of 1996, servicemen are forbidden to rent video cassettes in military garrisons. [3]

Also noteworthy is the experience in creating, in the course of military campaigns, the so-called reporters pools: a narrow circle of trusted civilian journalists with access to primary sources of military and social information who provide favorable coverage of some military events or other. Such pools make it possible to provide not only information but also disinformation to the world public in the interests of strategic concealment and deception. A case in point is the war in the Persian Gulf. Reporters teams were formed in the zone of operations with the participation of liaison and PR officers from a special department. Not a single story prepared in the course of the operation could be filed without their approval. Reporters were not given access to front line units. Everything that could weaken the morale of troops--criticism of the G. Bush administration, reported difficulties of the operation in the desert, instances of inaccurate air strikes, and playing up the instances of capture and death of se rvicemen--was explicitly banned. U.S. allies in the anti-Iraqi coalition also enforced strict censorship. As a result, U.S., British, and French media built an aura of patriotism and military glory around multinational forces servicemen.

At present, the U.S. military is working on an additional long-term morale training program for the 21st century, setting the principal requirements for enlisted personnel: keen intellect, physical strength, and strong motivation for military service. Further development of these qualities is to be ensured through provision of professional incentives, improvement of the moral-psychological environment, maintenance of a reasonable balance of service in the United States and abroad, and better service conditions and living standards for military servicemen. The document maps out a mechanism for practical inculcation of moral-psychological and ethical norms in the servicemen's consciousness.

Thus, morale training of armed forces personnel covers principal forms of public consciousness--political, religious, and social. This approach, combined with effective compensation and incentives, is designed to produce an effective impact on the consciousness and psyche of military servicemen, helping maintain the combat readiness and operational efficiency of armed forces at an appropriate level.

NOTES:

(1.) See: Doklad ministra oborony SShA prezidentu i kongressu, Moscow, 2000 (Russian translation).

(2.) See: Doklad ministra oborony SShA prezidentu i kongressu.

(3.) See: S.N. Malovatov, E.N. Skretneva, "Moralno-psikhologicheskoye sostoyaniye lichnogo sostava vooruzhennykh sil Norvegii," Infomatsionnyy sbornik GSh VS RF/GU, No. 3, Moscow, 1998.