Mokola virus in domestic mammals, South Africa.We recently identified 2 Mokola viruses from domestic mammals (a dog and a cat) in South Africa, These cases occurred 8 years after the last reported case of infection with this virus, Our findings emphasize the endemicity of rabies-related lyssaviruses in South Africa and the need to better understand the epidemiology of Mokola viruses. ********** Mokola virus (MOKV) is classified as genotype (gt) 3 of the genus Lyssavirus in the family Rhabdoviridae (order Mononegavirales). Apart from MOKV, the genus Lyssavirus consists of 6 gts: classic rabies virus rabies virus n. A rather large, bullet-shaped virus of the genus Lyssavirus that causes rabies. (gt1), Lagos bat virus Lagos bat virus is a lyssavirus that causes a rabies-like illness in mammals in southern and central Africa. It was first isolated from a fruit bat (Eidolon helvum) from Lagos Island, Nigeria in 1956. (gt2), Duvenhage virus Duvenhage virus a rabies-like virus isolated from fruit-eating bats in which it causes a disease similar to rabies. (gt4), European bat lyssavirus type 1 (gt5) and type 2 (gt6), and Australian bat lyssavirus
Although gt1 viruses have a global distribution, gt5 and gt6 viruses are restricted to Europe and gt7 viruses are limited to Australia. Natural infections with gt2, gt3, and gt4 viruses have been found only in Africa. With the exception of MOKV, all lyssavirus gts and putative gts have been isolated exclusively or most frequently from chiropteran species. MOKV has never been isolated from these species, but only from terrestrial mammals. The first MOKV was isolated from shrews (Crocidura sp.) in Nigeria in 1968. Since then, [greater than or equal to] 20 isolates of this lyssavirus have been found throughout Africa (Cameroon, Central African Republic Central African Republic, republic (2005 est. pop. 3,800,000), 240,534 sq mi (622,983 sq km), central Africa. The landlocked nation is bordered by Chad (N), Sudan (E), Congo (Kinshasa) and Congo (Brazzaville) (S), and Cameroon (W). , Ethiopia, South Africa, and Zimbabwe) (2-12) (Table 1). We report the identification and characterization of 2 cases of infection with MOKV in South Africa. The first was in a domestic dog and is, to our knowledge, the first such case in South Africa. The second was in a domestic cat, the host species in which all previous isolates were found. The cat MOKV isolate belonged to 1 of 2 previously identified South African MOKV phylogenetic phy·lo·ge·net·ic adj. 1. Of or relating to phylogeny or phylogenetics. 2. Relating to or based on evolutionary development or history. lineages, but the dog MOKV isolate appeared to have a different lineage not previously encountered in South Africa or elsewhere in Africa. The Study In October 2004, a 3-month-old kitten (Felis domesticus) was adopted from the Society of the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals cruelty to animals n. the crime of inflicting physical pain, suffering or death on an animal, usually a tame one, beyond necessity for normal discipline. It can include neglect that is so monstrous (withholding food and water) that the animal has suffered, died or (East London, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa) and lived with its owner on a farm 23 km outside the city. It had been neutered neu·ter adj. 1. Grammar a. Neither masculine nor feminine in gender. b. Neither active nor passive; intransitive. Used of verbs. 2. a. and had been vaccinated at 10 months of age with an adjuvanted inactivated inactivated rendered inactive; the activity is destroyed. inactivated viruses treated so that they are no longer able to produce evidence of growth or damaging effect on tissue. vaccine against rabies rabies (rā`bēz, ră`–) or hydrophobia (hī'drəfō`bēə), acute viral infection of the central nervous system in dogs, foxes, raccoons, skunks, bats, and other animals, and in (Rabisin; Merial, Lyon, France), but no subsequent vaccinations were given. The cat spent most of the day indoors, but went out at night and returned in the morning. Unusual behavior was noticed in March 2006. It appeared dull and physically unbalanced and its pupils were dilated dilated a state of dilatation. dilated cardiomyopathy see congestive cardiomyopathy. dilated pupil syndrome see feline dysautonomia (Key-Gaskell syndrome). but it was not aggressive. The cat was humanely killed, and its brain was sent to the Onderstepoort Veterinary Institute for rabies testing. On June 17, 2005, a 6-month-old puppy (Canis familiaris) was brought by its owner to a veterinarian veterinarian /vet·er·i·nar·i·an/ (vet?er-i-nar´e-an) a person trained and authorized to practice veterinary medicine and surgery; a doctor of veterinary medicine. vet·er·i·nar·i·an n. in the rural town of Nkomazi (Mpumalanga Province, South Africa). The dog had a temperature of 39.8[degrees]C and no appetite. After symptoms were treated, the dog was discharged, but it was brought back 11 days later because it was paralyzed par·a·lyze tr.v. par·a·lyzed, par·a·lyz·ing, par·a·lyz·es 1. To affect with paralysis; cause to be paralytic. 2. To make unable to move or act: paralyzed by fear. , dehydrated de·hy·drate v. de·hy·drat·ed, de·hy·drat·ing, de·hy·drates v.tr. 1. To remove water from; make anhydrous. 2. To preserve by removing water from (vegetables, for example). , and had a fixed stare. This animal had never been aggressive to other pets or humans. The dog was humanely killed, and its brain was sent to the Onderstepoort Veterinary Institute for rabies testing. Direct immunofluorescent immunofluorescent having the characteristic of immunofluorescence. immunofluorescent antibody test see fluorescence microscopy. immunofluorescent microscopy see fluorescence microscopy. antibody test with an anti-rabies conjugate conjugate /con·ju·gate/ (kon´jdbobr-gat) 1. paired, or equally coupled; working in unison. 2. a conjugate diameter of the pelvic inlet; used alone usually to denote the true conjugate diameter; see cross-reactive with African lyssaviruses showed numerous and strongly stained inclusion bodies in every field of impression smears of both brain samples. Isolation of virus was attempted by suckling suckling In mammals, the drawing of milk into the mouth from the nipple of a mammary gland. In human beings, it is referred to as nursing or breast-feeding. The word also denotes an animal that has not yet been weaned—that is, whose access to milk has not yet been mouse brain passage and cell culture (neuroblastoma Neuroblastoma Definition Neuroblastoma is a type of cancer that usually originates either in the tissues of the adrenal gland or in the ganglia of the abdomen or in the ganglia of the nervous system. cells; Diagnostic Hybrids, Athens, OH, USA); both methods were successful for the cat sample. However, neither method yielded an isolate from the dog sample, despite a lyssavirus-specific reaction in the original brain sample by direct immunofluorescent antibody test. Subsequently, antigenic characterization was performed with a panel of 16 monoclonal antibodies to the nucleocapsid nucleocapsid /nu·cleo·cap·sid/ (noo?kle-o-kap´sid) a unit of viral structure, consisting of a capsid with the enclosed nucleic acid. nu·cle·o·cap·sid n. protein of rabies virus (Canadian Food Inspection Agency The Canadian Food Inspection Agency (French: Agence canadienne d'inspection des aliments), or CFIA, which was created in April 1997, brought together inspection and related services previously provided through the activities of four federal government departments , Nepean, Ontario, Canada). Both samples showed reactivity patterns associated with MOKV (Table 2). Final confirmation of MOKV in both case samples was obtained by reverse transcription--PCR, nucleotide sequencing, and phylogenetic analysis as described (12). Phylogenetic analysis (Figure) showed that the virus isolated from the cat sample (designated MOKV173/06) belonged to the same lineage of MOKV isolates that were recovered from cats in the same region of South Africa (12). However, the virus detected in the dog sample (designated MOKV404/05) appeared to represent a different South African MOKV lineage that was phylogenetically phy·lo·ge·net·ic adj. 1. Of or relating to phylogeny or phylogenetics. 2. Relating to or based on evolutionary development or history: a phylogenetic classification of species. positioned between known South African and Zimbabwean lineages. This MOKV had nucleotide similarities of 88.1%-90.4% and 85.3%-88.5% with viruses from Zimbabwe and South Africa, respectively. [FIGURE OMITTED] Conclusions Infections with MOKV are rare; only 23 isolates are known. During the past 2 decades, all MOKV isolates have been found in South Africa. Because these viruses are not exclusive to South Africa (2-12), lack of isolates from other regions of Africa The continent of Africa can be conceptually subdivided into a number of regions or subregions. Directional approach One common approach categorises Africa directionally, e.g. indicates a lack of active surveillance and limited diagnostic capabilities in many African laboratories. To our knowledge, the 2 cases of infection with MOKV we report are the first in 8 years from South Africa. These cases suggest that other cases may not have been recognized. Clinical signs in the dog and cat, including general neurologic manifestations with a lack of aggression, are often signs that warrant submitting samples for rabies testing. We have identified regional variations in the antigenic composition of MOKV. Whether these variations are caused by neutral genetic drift genetic drift: see genetics. genetic drift Change in the pool of genes of a small population that takes place strictly by chance. Genetic drift can result in genetic traits being lost from a population or becoming widespread in a population without or reflect different epidemiologic features is not known. Phylogenetically, divergence of these viruses into different lineages indicates active cycles and evolutionary changes that occur independently, but in close proximity (a few hundred kilometers apart). Although the epidemiology of MOKV is incomplete, the case for a reservoir host reservoir host n. A host that serves as a source of infection and potential reinfection of humans and as a means of sustaining a parasite when it is not infecting humans. (s) among small terrestrial animals of limited range is supported by our findings. Together with recent isolations of rabies-related lyssaviruses in a human (13) and wild animals WILD ANIMALS. Animals in a state of nature; animals ferae naturae. Vide Animals; Ferae naturae. (14,15), these reports emphasize the endemicity of these lyssaviruses in South Africa. Public health implications of African rabies-related lyssaviruses should be recognized by laboratory workers, researchers, veterinarians Veterinarians and veterinary surgeons (vets) are medical professionals who operate exclusively on animals. Well-known and notable veterinarians include:
This study was supported by the Rabies Diagnostic Project OVI OVI Ohio Volunteer Infantry OVI Onderstepoort Veterinary Institute OVI Open Verilog International OVI Optically Variable Ink OVI Ort von Interesse (German) OVI Operating a Vehicle while Intoxicated 15/4/P001. References (1.) Fauquet CM, Mayo MA, Maniloff J, Desselberger U, Ball LA. Virus taxonomy: the classification and nomenclature of viruses. The eighth report of the international committee on taxonomy of viruses The International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) is a committee which authorizes and organizes the taxonomic classification of viruses. They have developed a universal taxonomic scheme for viruses and aim to describe all the viruses of living organisms. . San Diego: Academic Press; 2004. p. 623-31. (2.) Shope RE, Murphy FA, Harrison AK, Causey Causey is a village in County Durham, in England. It is situated a short distance to the north of Stanley. OR, Kemp GE, Simpson DI, et al. Two African viruses serologically and morphologically related to rabies virus. J Virol. 1970;6:690-2. (3.) Kemp GE, Causey OR, Moore DL, Odelola A, Fabiyi A. Mokola virus. Further studies on IbAn 27377, a new rabies-related etiologic agent of zoonosis Zoonosis Definition Zoonosis, also called zoonotic disease refers to diseases that can be passed from animals, whether wild or domesticated, to humans. in Nigeria. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1972;21:356-9. (4.) Familusi JB, Osunkoya BO, Moore DL, Kemp GE, Fabiyi A, Moore DL. A fatal human infection with Mokola virus. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1972;21:959-63. (5.) Le Gonidec G, Rickenbach A, Robin Y, Heme heme: see coenzyme. G. Isolation of a strain of Mokola virus in Cameroon. Ann Microbiol (Paris). 1978;129:245-9. (6.) Saluzzo JF, Rollin PE, Daugard C, Digoutte JP, Georges AJ, Sureau P. Premier isolement du virus Mokola a partir d'une rungeur (Lophuromys sikapusi). Annales de Institut Pasteur Virologie. 1984; 135E:57-66. (7.) Foggin CM. Rabies and rabies-related viruses in Zimbabwe: historical, virological virological pertaining to viruses. and ecological aspects [doctoral dissertation]. Harare (Zimbabwe): University of Zimbabwe The University of Zimbabwe (UZ), is the first and largest university in Zimbabwe. It was founded through a special relationship with the University of London and it opened its doors to its first students in 1952. ; 1988. (8.) Mebatsion T, Cox JH, Frost JW. Isolation and characterisation of 115 street rabies virus isolates from Ethiopia by using monoclonal antibodies: identification of 2 isolates of Mokola and Lagos bat viruses. J Infect Dis. 1992;166:972-7. (9.) Meredith CD, Nel LH, von Teichman BF. A further isolation of Mokola virus in South Africa. Vet Rec. 1996;138:119-20. (10.) von Teichman BF, de Koker WC, Bosch SJ, Bishop GC, Meredith CD, Bingham J. Mokola virus infection: description of recent South African cases and a review of the virus epidemiology. J S Afr Vet Assoc. 1998;69:169-71. (11.) Bingham J, Javangwe S, Sabeta CT, Wandeler AI, Nel LH. Report of isolations of unusual lyssaviruses (rabies and Mokola virus) identified retrospectively from Zimbabwe. J S Afr Vet Assoc. 2001;72:92-4. (12.) Nel L, Jacobs J, Jaftha J, yon Teichman B, Bingham J. New cases of Mokola virus infection in South Africa: a genotypic comparison of Southern African virus isolates. Virus Genes. 2000;20:103-6. (13.) Paweska JT, Blumberg LH, Liebenberg C, Hewlett RH, Grobelaar AA, Leman lem·an n. Archaic 1. A sweetheart; a lover. 2. A mistress. [Middle English leofman, lemman : leof, dear (from Old English PA, et al. Fatal human infection with rabies-related Duvenhage virus, South Africa. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006; 12:1965-7. (14.) Markotter W, Randles J, Rupprecht CE, Sabeta CT, Taylor PJ, Wandeler AI, et al. Lagos bat virus, South Africa. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;12:504-6. (15.) Markotter W, Kuzmin I, Rupprecht CE, Randles J, Sabeta CT, Wandeler AI, et al. Isolation of Lagos bat virus from water mongoose mongoose, name for a large number of small, carnivorous, terrestrial Old World mammals of the civet family. They are found in S Asia and in Africa, with one species extending into S Spain. . Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;12:1913-8. Address for correspondence: Claude T. Sabeta, Rabies Unit, Agricultural Research Council--Onderstepoort Veterinary Institute, Private Bag X05, Onderstepoort 0110, Pretoria, South Africa; email: sabetac@arc.agric.za Claude T. Sabeta, * ([dagger]) Wanda Markotter, ([dagger]) Debrah K. Mohale, * Wonderful Shumba, * Alexander I. Wandeler, ([double dagger]) and Louis H. Nel ([dagger]) * Agricultural Research Council--Onderstepoort Veterinary Institute, Pretoria, South Africa; ([dagger]) University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa; and ([double dagger]) Canadian Food Inspection Agency, Nepean, Ontario, Canada Dr Sabeta is a senior research scientist and head of the World Organisation for Animal Health Rabies Reference Laboratory in Onderstepoort, South Africa. His research interests include epidemiologic investigations of rabies and rabies-related viruses in southern Africa.
Table 1. Moloka virus isolates identified in Africa
Location Year of isolation Species of origin
Ibadan, Nigeria 1968 Shrew (Crocidura sp.)
(3 isolates)
Ibadan, Nigeria 1968 Human
Ibadan, Nigeria 1969 Shrew (Crocidura sp.)
Umhlanga Rocks, Kwazulu 1970 (identified Cat
Natal Province,
South Africa in the 1980s)
Ibadan, Nigeria 1971 Human
Yaounde, Cameroon 1974 Shrew (Crocidura sp.)
Bangui, Central African 1981 Rodent (Lophuromys
Republic sikapusi)
Bulawayo, Zimbabwe 1981 Dog (vaccinated) and
cat (4 isolates)
Bulawayo, Zimbabwe 1982 Cat (2 isolates)
Addis Adaba, Ethiopia 1989-1990 Cat
Selous, Zimbabwe 1993 Cat
Mdantsane, Eastern Cape 1995 Cat
Province,
South Africa
East London, Eastern 1996 Cat
Cape Province,
South Africa
Yellow Sands, Eastern 1996 Cat (vaccinated)
Cape Province,
South Africa
Pinetown, Kwazulu Natal 1997 Cat (vaccinated)
Province, (2 isolates)
South Africa
Pietermaritzburg, 1998 Cat (vaccinated)
Kwazulu Natal Province,
South Africa
Nkomazi, Mpumalanga 2005 Dog
Province, South Africa
East London, Eastern 2006 Cat (vaccinated)
Cape Province,
South Africa
Location Reference
Ibadan, Nigeria (2)
Ibadan, Nigeria (3,4)
Ibadan, Nigeria (3)
Umhlanga Rocks, Kwazulu (12)
Natal Province,
South Africa
Ibadan, Nigeria (3)
Yaounde, Cameroon (5)
Bangui, Central African (6)
Republic
Bulawayo, Zimbabwe (7)
Bulawayo, Zimbabwe (7)
Addis Adaba, Ethiopia (8)
Selous, Zimbabwe (11)
Mdantsane, Eastern Cape (9)
Province,
South Africa
East London, Eastern (10)
Cape Province,
South Africa
Yellow Sands, Eastern (10)
Cape Province,
South Africa
Pinetown, Kwazulu Natal (10,12)
Province,
South Africa
Pietermaritzburg, (10,12)
Kwazulu Natal Province,
South Africa
Nkomazi, Mpumalanga This study
Province, South Africa
East London, Eastern This study
Cape Province,
South Africa
Table 2. Reactivity of virus isolates with 16 monoclonal antibodies to
the nucleocapsid protein of rabies and rabies-related viruses *
Lagos
Dog Mongoose bat Mokola
Monoclonal antibody (gt1) (gt1) (gt2) (gt3)
26AB7 + Var - -
26BE2 + Var - -
38HF2 (positive control) + + + +
66-1 C5 (negative control) - - - -
M1001 - - - +
M1336 + - - Var
M1349 Var Var - Var
M1386 - + - -
M1412 + Var - -
M1494 Var Var - -
M612 - - + -
M837 - - - -
M853 + - - -
M856 + - - -
M857 + - - -
M879 + - - Var
Duvenhage
Monoclonal antibody (gt4) MOKV404/05 MOKV173/06
26AB7 - - -
26BE2 - - -
38HF2 (positive control) + + +
66-1 C5 (negative control) - - -
M1001 - + +
M1336 - - -
M1349 - - -
M1386 - - +
M1412 - - -
M1494 + - -
M612 - - -
M837 + - -
M853 + - -
M856 + - -
M857 + - -
M879 + - -
* gt, genotype; +, positive reactivity; Var, reactivity with some
regional variants; -, negative reactivity.
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