Migration in India: education and outreach for street children.

The 2001 Annual Theme issue of Childhood Education focused on migration and education. Guest Editor Navaz Bhavnagri located too many excellent articles on that important topic to include in one issue. Therefore, she will continue to provide these theme-related articles, here and in future issues.

Today's complex society, with its myriad political, economic, and social changes, has accelerated migration and led to the displacement of many families. These families are displaced because of human conflicts, natural disasters, social upheaval, religious or political persecution, or the search for economic and professional opportunities (Le Roux & Smith, 1998). Based on a review of the available literature, as well as personal observations and experiences, this article examines issues associated with migration in India--the causes, its impact on children, and intervention efforts.

Migration and Street Children

Historically, India has attracted visitors, traders, students, and warriors from around the world. Today, it continues to be a safe haven for many, as it is one of the world's largest democracies. After the decline of the Soviet Union, for example, many urban refugees from Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, Myanmar, Somalia, and Sudan migrated to India and settled in New Delhi, the capital. In addition, each year large numbers of people from neighboring countries such as Nepal, Tibet, and Sri Lanka relocate to India (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees [UNHCR], 1998). Internal migration, from rural to urban, also affects India and further exacerbates the extremes between the various socioeconomic strata.

Although 75 percent of India's population still lives in rural parts of the country, many families are drawn to the metropolitan areas. Movement is the result of both a desire for a better life and a wish to escape from a very limited rural economy. Rural to urban migration may include: 1) entire families, 2) men alone, or 3) children. Children may migrate in order to support their poverty-stricken families, escape from dysfunctional families, or seek better education opportunities (Das, 1998).

Some of these migrated children spend their childhood years working and living on the streets, and have no opportunities for play or school. Contrary to perceptions that only a small number of minors live on the streets without any adult supervision or support, India has an estimated 500,000 street children (the largest such population in the world). Many live with their families in some of the poorest sections of the metropolitan cities. Some street children live with families who adopt them for purely economic reasons. As the rate of urban poverty grows, there is a parallel increase in the number of child workers competing with the existing disadvantaged population for jobs ("Open minds," 1999).

"Street children" may be categorized as: 1) "children on the streets," or those who are engaged in some street trade and usually return at night to some shelter; 2) "children of the streets," who voluntarily seek shelter, companionship, and livelihood on the streets; and 3) "abandoned children," who survive entirely on their own with no ties to families. These working children are a particularly vulnerable group and must rely on the fragile survival strategies of families and communities suffering from poverty and underemployment. Approximately 58 percent of street children are hired in unskilled, labor-intensive jobs in small factories, restaurants, and wayside teashops, all requiring long hours of work. Approximately 46 percent of the children are self-employed as newspaper distributors and other types of vendors, or as parking attendants, domestic servants, porters, car cleaners, shoeshine boys, and rag pickers. Many small industries in India depend heavily on child labor (Rao, 1996).

With little or no protection and guidance from adults, street children are highly vulnerable to exploitation by adults. Living in unhygienic conditions, suffering from malnutrition, and lacking the basic amenities of safe drinking water, electricity, and sanitation, these children are at greater risk for poor health than their rural counterparts (Bhavnagri & Vaswani, 1999). Although findings are not consistent, reports indicate that street children have twice as many health problems, including developmental delays, depression, anxiety, behavior problems, and social incompetence, when compared to other urban children (Rafferty & Shinn, 1991). Under these circumstances, attending formal school becomes very challenging and so the cycle of poverty continues.

As Le Roux and Smith (1998) noted, street children and children in labor are a reflection of broader systemic economical issues. Perceived as marginalized on one hand and as rogues on the other, these children are the subject of both pity and contempt. Given the enormity and complexity of the problem, it is a formidable challenge for India.

Street Children: Policies and Programs

India's National Policy of Education, enacted in 1986, offered free and compulsory education to all children up to age 14. Realistically considering the enormous task of achieving universal elementary education, particularly in light of socio-economic challenges affecting so many, a large systematic program of informal education also was introduced. The informal education scheme promotes a child-centered and environment-oriented curriculum to meet the educational needs of all deprived children, including street children, dropouts, girls, and children employed as unskilled or skilled labor. Informal education is a project-based strategy. Generally, each project involves approximately 100 centers (Rao, 1996; Saini, 2000), with varying size, structure, and delivery systems. They strive to restore children's holistic development--physical, psychosocial, and intellectual growth--to make them self-sufficient, while offering love and care. Some common goals include functional literacy, social services, and vocational training.

Functional Literacy. To attract children into informal education programs, field workers visit public parks, crowded pavements and streets, and railway and bus stations where the children are likely to be found. The street children are often suspicious of adults, whom they view as responsible for their condition or as abusers. In order to minimize suspicion, street tutors are recruited from within the street culture and trained to establish trust and positive relationships with children. Programs like "Butterflies," a "Voluntary Organization in Community Enterprise," train street children to assume the task of "street child educators." Classes are held during the day or night, as suits the children's working schedules. These programs are found in informal settings, unless the programs were able to acquire centers through public support (e.g., VOICE, 2000). Recently, a New Delhi-based private school serving children from elite families opened its school building to accommodate neighboring pavement dwellers, including children.

To impart developmentally appropriate abilities, knowledge and skills, participants usually are grouped by age: 7-12, 13-16, and adults. Some projects, like Ankuran of Delhi, also run preschool centers that focus on play, music, and dance activities. Children past grade 8 are placed in formal schools or vocational settings, where they continue to get individual assistance. Instruction is conducted in the children's native language and local dialect; ideas for activities such as field trips, games, stories, and poems are made relevant to the children's experiences and local community by seeking their input through informal interactions. Innovative programs such as the Theater Action Group involve children in creative expression. While providing children an opportunity to reflect on issues important to them--living conditions, hopes, and experiences--the plays also serve as media for public awareness.

To investigate social issues such as police harassment, drug addiction, gambling, health, education, and nonpayment of wages, Butterflies holds meetings and interviews approximately once every two weeks. During these meetings, the children are encouraged to tell their own stories. Recognizing that poverty and lack of shelter threaten the very integrity of the family, efforts to establish and maintain contact with parents through letter writing activities are a priority.

Features of Butterflies have been replicated in other programs throughout India, as well as in Brazil, Peru, Senegal, and Kenya. For its work as an advocate of children, Butterflies received accolades from delegates at the Third World Summit on Children in Media, held to discuss a code of ethics for media regarding to the practice of publicizing photographs of children who are victims of sexual abuse or are in conflict with the law (Rao, 1996).

Social Services. Services are designed to meet the street children's needs, with the understanding that the key to overall development and academic achievement is health and a secure environment. Provided services include night shelters, sanitation, safe drinking water, meals, health and medical aid, entertainment and recreation facilities, mentoring and counseling, sex education, guidance, and referral services. Acknowledging that no institution can take better care of children than their own families, one of the goals of these programs is to enable parents to support and value their children's education. For example, the Bal-Anand program of Mumbai specifically targets families and builds additional support systems for overburdened parents so the children can go to school. The Champa Mahila Society of West Bengal helps promote communication with parents to provide good parenting skills ("ASHA," 2000). Programs also may create group homes or villages for children who have no families. For example, in addition to creating child care centers for street girls, the Shri K. Chaitanya Vidyavihara Children's Trust Fund of Vijayawada City has created night shelters ("ASHA," 2000). To serve children who become drug-addicted and/or who are malnourished, the Institute of Psychological and Educational Research of Calcutta has created open learning schools with special clinics, drug treatment centers, and outpatient departments to disseminate information regarding health care, nutrition, hygiene, and sanitation ("IPER India," 2000).

Vocational Training. Recognizing that banning children from work might increase their suffering, several programs teach the children practical money-making activities such as screen-printing, woodworking, candle making, welding, tailoring, car repair, and making wrapping paper and greeting cards. This vocational training enhances the children's autonomy, self-confidence, and self-reliance. Their earnings provide them financial security and help to support their families. Some intensive vocational training projects, such as Prabhatra's Earn-While-You-Learn Scheme (serving children and women) and Uday, focus on the budgeting, saving, accounting, and basic communication skills essential for running a small business (Rao, 1996). Some programs, such as ASHA (which means "hope," and which was established in the United States), may concentrate exclusively on generating funds for expanding existing projects or supporting new enthusiasts ("ASHA," 2000).

How effective are these alternative informal education programs for street children? Do these programs promise them a future? Below are the authors' observations of a New Delhi-based program called Prayas (meaning "effort"). Prayas started as a model medical program to serve street children, and gradually has changed into a prevention model that emphasizes education and care.

Case Study of a Program for Street Children

In 1998, Prayas started an Institute for Neglected Child and Juvenile Justice, serving 25 street children. The primary goal was to reduce the incidence of homelessness and delinquency among young drug addicts and alcoholics. In addition, the program sought to facilitate a sense of individual dignity and social responsibility, as well as promote healthful and productive lifestyles. The program provided psychological support, counseling, rehabilitation, and vocational training. Eventually, the program focus has shifted to the care and education of street children. As emphasized in the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, the basic needs and rights of a child are synonymous. Prayas is now dedicated, through its 35 centers, to protecting children's rights, by focusing on functional literacy, social services, and vocational training.

Functional Literacy. Today, Prayas is one of the most active informal education program for homeless children and families, serving 3,000 children (including children with special needs) between the ages of 6 to 16. More than 95 percent of these children are first generation learners, and many have been successfully mainstreamed into formal schools. To reduce the children's dropout rate, their homework is monitored. Important issues such as valuing school, general hygiene, and sanitation are discussed in monthly parent teacher meetings. University students, as part of their practical experience, conduct field experiences and camp-cum-workshops. Weekly meetings encourage students to express their views, share their concerns and anxieties with peers, and promote the development of academic and leadership traits. Literacy is promoted through puppet shows, street plays, film shows, print and visual media, and contributions by popular national and international actors and politicians.

Social Services. To ensure the health and well-being of its students, Prayas provides several social services. Although re-uniting children with the family is the priority, shelter is provided for the children who are unable to trace their families or who are unwilling to go home. All participating children receive a nutritious midday meal. This meal attracts other working children to the program. Health services provided include a medical clinic, sick rooms, visiting doctors, and routine check-ups. Two mobile and regular medical camps at different sites provide free medications and information on AIDS prevention, as well as family planning advice. For children in need of immediate support due to abuse or neglect, the toll-free Childline, staffed by former Prayas students, offers crisis intervention.

Vocational Training. For children ages 14 to 16 who are not formally enrolled in school, vocational training is provided in areas such as candle making, auto repair, fabric painting, and tailoring. They gain self-sufficiency through the sale of vocational products, such as greeting cards, and through sponsorships. Upon completion of training, children are placed in jobs or supported in their own ventures.

Other Services. Monthly meetings are held to obtain input from parents, children, teachers, community leaders, and local politicians. In collaboration with similar organizations, Prayas compiles and publishes documentation of other national and international organizations. Regular workshops, seminars, and training materials provide information to nongovernmental organizations, educators, bureaucrats, and other social groups on issues related to children's rights and needs (Kanth & Verma, 1999).

Personal Reflections. For the authors, observations of Prayas, an institution that has emerged as a replicable model both in the country and in international communities, was a spiritual experience. Most children at the center spoke English and eloquently shared their understandings about the social issues affecting their lives. Many wanted to make a difference by becoming teachers, police officers, doctors, or lawyers. One little girl asserted that she would get married only after becoming a teacher. These children were not discussing mere dreams or wishful thinking; they had powerful and achievable goals.

Future Planning To Serve Street Children

The education future for street children is too complex to envision with clarity. However, the government and nongovernmental organizations in India are in the process of restructuring delivery of services. Informal education programs are creating caring and nurturing environments and providing literacy to street children. The challenge is to: 1) increase and strengthen the range of noninstitutional services, 2) improve the quality and content of institutional and noninstitutional services that focus on the best interests of the child, 3) develop advisory boards with representatives from major nongovernment organizations, 4) monitor and evaluate the programs, 5) compile a database of resources, and 6) establish a collaborative network among the programs that serve children.

Based on their own experiences and those of other countries, a forum of nongovernment organizations plans to initiate a joint action plan by integrating and coordinating all the agencies. These include the UN and public agencies, as well as state, local, and central governments. To spread limited resources over a large population, India is currently attempting to consolidate and reorganize various centers and increase funding to programs serving children on the streets and those involved in child labor. Also, India is in the process of developing a consortium to develop a virtual library to ensure that best practices and current literature are shared across the country. The consortium will also provide street educators with resource materials, training experiences, and increased funding. Plans include creating greater public awareness, opening more informal education centers in certain states, developing a replicable model, and urging formal school systems to initiate interventions (World Education Forum, 2000). It is hoped that the strength of this collaborative venture will reduce costs and enhance the convergence of the programs in certain states.

Recommendations

A key factor in improving services for migrant street children is to prepare interested, motivated, dedicated, caring, and competent staff and volunteers. These individuals can help improve the physical, emotional, and psychological status of the street children, in addition to channeling their positive energies towards constructive endeavors. An important segment of teacher training should be focused on creating an enlightened and humane society. Educators of street children will need professional development that provides strategies to meet the diverse needs of the unique population they serve.

Beyond academic instruction, teacher training should stress application of knowledge learned through practical field experiences in informal education programs to ensure sensitivity to migrant street children, and practice in advocacy. Also, curricula for preservice teachers should be less rigidly structured--more open to change and less concerned with content. More emphasis should be placed upon problem-solving processes and on the appropriateness of applying solutions in practical, ethical, and social terms.

A team-teaching approach is essential to the success of educating migrant street children in informal education programs. Teachers need to collaborate on meeting basic academic goals and objectives, providing social services, and offering vocational training with love and care. Professionals must understand that no single discipline or individual can provide the full range of services needed. Ensuring the successful integration of these components implies collaboration among service providers from various disciplines such as teachers, social workers, and vocational trainers, and from companies that provide training.

An ongoing curriculum that meets the diverse needs of students who will transition from informal to formal education, or from informal education into the work force, must be planned in a timely manner. To minimize any stress that these changes may cause, teachers should begin preparing the students at least six months before the actual transition. In planning for transition, teachers should identify skills needed in the future environment and ensure their inclusion in the curriculum.

Teacher training, team-teaching approaches, and planning for transitions are key components to the success of all education programs, especially those for migrant street children. Given the understanding, opportunity, and space to grow within a formal or informal education, all children, including migrant street and working children, will be able to achieve their life goals and personal dreams.

STREET CHILDREN IN INDIA

   Street children --
   Hungry, tired,
   Piteous children --
   Looking for a place to
   sleep
   Street children --
   Roaming the streets
   at night
   Sleeping in barrows
   and bins,
   Longing for a home
   and a bed
   Street children --
   Children living in
   poverty
   Eating any scraps,
   No one picks and
   chooses
   Street children.

--C. Dipanjali,
2nd Grade
(Vidyodaya, India)

References

ASHA: The story. (2000). [On-line]. Available: www.ashanet.org/info.html

Bhavnagri, N. P., & Vaswani, T. G. (1999). Expanding roles of teachers for the 21st century: An Indian context. Childhood Education, 75, 297-303.

Das, B. (1998). Slum dwellers in Indian cities: The case of Surat in Western India. [On-line]. Available: http://ideas. uqam.ca/ideas/data/Papers/qehqehwpsQEHWPS07

IPER India. (2000). [On-line]. Available: www.iperindia.com /moreabout.html

Kanth, A. Z., & Verma, R. M. (1999). Prayas. [On-line]. Available: www.differentindia.og/prayas.html

Le Roux, J., & Smith, C. S. (1998). Causes and characteristics of the street children phenomenon: A global perspective. Adolescence, 33, 683-688.

Open minds educating all our children. (1999). [On-line]. Available: www.open-minds.org/education.asp.

Rafferty, Y., & Shinn, M. (1991). The impact of homelessness on children. American Psychologist, 46, 1170-1177.

Rao, D. B. (1996). Encyclopedia of education for all (Vols. 1-5). New Delhi, India: Discovery Publishing House.

Saini, A. (2000). The Indian scenario: Empowering children and youth. Childhood Education, 75, 297-303.

UNESCO's statistical yearbook. (1999). [On-line]. Available: www.unesco.org/education/educprogram/brochure. html

United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. (1998). Evaluation of UNHCR's policy or refugees in urban areas: A case study review of New Delhi. [On-line]. Available: www.unhcr.ch/evaluate/reports/00newdelpdf.

VOICE. (2000). [On-line]. Available: www.voiceofchildren.org/Htmls/about.html

World Education Forum. (2000). [On-line]. Available: www2.unesco.org/wef/en-conf/ dakframeng.shtm.

Authors' Note: The authors wish to thank the administration of Prayas for the opportunity to observe the program and for providing other relevant information discussed in the article. They also thank Navaz Bhavnagri for her encouragement and editorial assistance in the preparation of this article.

Asha Saini is Visiting Professor, The College of Wooster, Wooster, Ohio. Shernavaz Vakil is Assistant Professor, University of Akron, Akron, Ohio.