Measuring up in the bedroom: muscle, thinness, and men's sex lives.Research has shown men often desire additional muscle mass, a trait related to masculine personality characteristics. While some research has suggested men lacking in muscle may believe themselves to be sexually undesirable to women, little research has been done in this area, especially when compared to the strong literature connecting women's drive for thinness to female sexual behavior sexual behavior A person's sexual practices–ie, whether he/she engages in heterosexual or homosexual activity. See Sex life, Sexual life. . The present study sought to determine the connection between men's body image and men's perceived sexual efficacy and attractiveness. Male undergraduates (N = 105) completed a novel scale of sexual efficacy and attractiveness, in addition to questions relating to relating to relate prep → concernant relating to relate prep → bezüglich +gen, mit Bezug auf +acc self-esteem, sexual behaviors and milestones, desire for muscle, and desire for thinness. Sexual efficacy and attractiveness was positively related to self-esteem, and mediated me·di·ate v. me·di·at·ed, me·di·at·ing, me·di·ates v.tr. 1. To resolve or settle (differences) by working with all the conflicting parties: drive for muscle's negative relationship to self-esteem. Drive for thinness was negatively related to self-esteem, but unrelated to any sexual indices. Results suggest the presence of two types of body image dissatisfaction in men--thinness and muscle--hut only the culturally demanded body dimension impacts sexual variables. Implications for future research are discussed. Keywords: masculinity masculinity /mas·cu·lin·i·ty/ (mas?ku-lin´i-te) virility; the possession of masculine qualities. mas·cu·lin·i·ty n. 1. The quality or condition of being masculine. 2. , muscle, thinness, body image, men, sexual behavior ********** Over the past decade, it has become apparent many men dislike their bodies. Indeed, a number of men harbor what has been coined the "Adonis Complex" (Pope, Phillips, & Olivardia, 2000)--a desire for additional muscle mass, often regardless of the man's actual physique physique /phy·sique/ (fi-zek´) the body organization, development, and structure. phy·sique n. The body considered with reference to its proportions, muscular development, and appearance. . While this desire for a more muscular body may be a form of the psychological disturbance body dysmorphic disorder Body Dysmorphic Disorder Definition Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) is defined by DSM-IV-TR as a condition marked by excessive pre-occupation with an imaginary or minor defect in a facial feature or localized part of the body. (Pope, Gruber, Choi, Olivardia, & Phillips, 1997), other men may exhibit a desire for muscularity which, while not reaching the threshold for true psychopathology psychopathology /psy·cho·pa·thol·o·gy/ (-pah-thol´ah-je) 1. the branch of medicine dealing with the causes and processes of mental disorders. 2. abnormal, maladaptive behavior or mental activity. , nonetheless poses a potential harm to self. For example, some men may use dangerous substances such as anabolic steroids Anabolic steroids A group of drugs derived from the male sex hormone testosterone, most commonly prescribed to promote growth or to help the body repair tissues weakened by severe illness or aging. Some anabolic steroids are given as appetite stimulants. (e.g., Olivardia, Pope, Borowiecki, & Cohane, 2004) or may exercise compulsively com·pul·sive adj. 1. Having the capacity to compel: a frightening, compulsive novel. 2. Psychology Caused or conditioned by compulsion or obsession. n. (e.g., Pope, Phillips, & Olivardia) in an attempt to gain muscle mass. The reason for such importance of muscle to men may be its cultural association with masculinity, in that muscle is thought to be indicative of masculinity and a man's status as a man (e.g., Bordo, 1999; Kimmel, 2006). Indeed, the possession of a muscular body may be an important part of adhering to Western notions of masculinity (Bordo, 1995; Connell, 2005; Doston, 1999). This association between muscle and masculinity has been suggested in interviews with eating disordered eat·ing disorder n. Any of several patterns of severely disturbed eating behavior, especially anorexia nervosa and bulimia, seen mainly in female teenagers and young women. men, as these men revealed a dominant attitude that men are culturally mandated to be muscular, or face ostracism ostracism (ŏs`trəsĭz'əm), ancient Athenian method of banishing a public figure. It was introduced after the fall of the family of Pisistratus. (Drummond, 2002). Likewise, in focus group interviews, boys and young men demonstrated a social expectation for men to be muscular, as muscle was believed to be related to social power and self-confidence. Quantitative work further supports this link, as boys report higher levels of drive for muscle than girls (McCreary & Sasse, 2000) and endorsement of masculine personality traits and gender roles positively correlated with drive for muscularity (Kimmel & Mahalik, 20004; McCreary, Saucier
A Saucier [sosˈje] , & Courtenay, 2005). Men dissatisfied with their level of muscularity report numerous psychological negatives including dampened self-esteem (McCreary & Sasse, 2000; Olivardia, Pope, Borowiecki, & Cohane, 2004), higher levels of depression (McCreary & Sasse), and higher levels of neuroticism neuroticism a neurotic condition; psychoneurosis. See also: Psychology Noun 1. neuroticism - a mental or personality disturbance not attributable to any known neurological or organic dysfunction neurosis, psychoneurosis , perfectionism per·fec·tion·ism n. A tendency to set rigid high standards of personal performance. per·fec  tion·ist adj. & n. , and appearance orientation (Davis, Karvinen,
& McCreary, 2005). Such results were not found in women desiring
more muscle mass (McCreary & Sasse), suggesting not only the
psychological importance of men meeting the cultural somatic somatic /so·mat·ic/ (so-mat´ik)1. pertaining to or characteristic of the soma or body. 2. pertaining to the body wall in contrast to the viscera. so·mat·ic adj. expectation of muscularity, but the gender-specific importance of meeting those expectations. Indeed, concern with muscularity appears to be a gender-specific body concern that is not only common in men, and related to masculine gender traits, but also impacts men's psyches more than it does women's. One area in which muscularity is particularly important to men's masculinity is in its believed capacity to attract a mate. For instance, centerfold cen·ter·fold n. 1. A magazine center spread, especially a foldout of an oversize photograph or feature. 2. a. The subject of a photograph used as a centerfold, often a nude model. b. models in Playgirl play·girl n. A woman devoted to the pursuit of pleasurable activities. magazine--images perhaps indicative of what women find sexually stimulating--have become increasingly more muscular over the past 30 years, to levels which may suggest steroid use (Leit, Pope, & Gray, 1999). Fueled by such unrealistic images of men, young men think un-muscular men are unattractive to women (Drummond, 2002) and commonly believe women desire men significantly more muscular than many men believe themselves to be (Olivardia, Pope, Borowiecki, & Cohane, 2004). Thus, it would appear that muscle dissatisfaction could significantly impair im·pair tr.v. im·paired, im·pair·ing, im·pairs To cause to diminish, as in strength, value, or quality: an injury that impaired my hearing; a severe storm impairing communications. young men's sex lives by prompting these men to hide their bodies and engage in fewer opposite sex relationships, perhaps due to a hampered sense of masculinity and self- esteem. However, to date, no studies have evaluated the impact of men's body image upon reported sexual behavior. Such an issue has, however, been studied in populations of both clinical and non-clinical women in regards to drive for thinness. In a study of females diagnosed with bulimia nervosa bulimia nervosa Eating disorder, mostly in women, in which excessive concern with weight and body shape leads to binge eating followed by compensatory behaviour such as self-induced vomiting or the excessive use of laxatives or diuretics. , Wiederman and Pryor (1997) found that body-image dissatisfaction in these women was correlated with a lower incidence of masturbation masturbation Erotic stimulation of one's own genital organs, usually to achieve orgasm. Masturbatory behavior is common in infants and adolescents, and is indulged in by many adults as well. Studies indicate that over 90% of U.S. males and 60–80% of U.S. , a later beginning to auto-erotic practices and a higher dissatisfaction with their sex lives generally. Similar findings have also been found in women without diagnosed eating disorders eating disorders, in psychology, disorders in eating patterns that comprise four categories: anorexia nervosa, bulimia, rumination disorder, and pica. Anorexia nervosa is characterized by self-starvation to avoid obesity. . In a sample of White women, Shulman and Home (2003) reported that participants dissatisfied with their bodies tended to masturbate mas·tur·bate v. To perform an act of masturbation. less. Furthermore, a large scale analysis of women assessed the relationship between body image and sexual attitudes and behaviors (Ackard, Kearney-Cooke, & Peterson 2000). Using the results of a mail-in magazine survey (Ackard, Kearney-Cooke, & Peterson, 1997) as their measure of body image, sexual behavior, and self-esteem, Ackard and associates (2000) found that women with a good body image reported more frequent sexual encounters, achieved orgasm orgasm /or·gasm/ (or´gazm) the apex and culmination of sexual excitement.orgas´mic or·gasm n. more frequently, initiated sex more often, and were more comfortable undressing in front of their partners than those less satisfied with their statures. Self- esteem was also correlated to the above factors, and body image satisfaction and self- esteem were positively correlated. These results reflect previous research (e.g., Evans & Schare, 1993; Wiederman, 2000; Young, 1980), which also found a negative relationship between body-image dissatisfaction and sexual activity and masturbation in female samples. Based on the above research, it appears as though women are aware of their gender-specific body domain (thinness) even during sexual activity--including masturbation--and negative feelings toward one's body may translate into diminished sexual activity and pleasure. Based upon the prior literature in women, and the cultural link between masculinity and muscularity, it is hypothesized that desire for muscularity will be negatively correlated to men's assessment of their sex lives. Furthermore, consistent with prior findings using the somatomorphic matrix (Olivarida, Pope, Borowiecki, & Cohane, 2004), desire for muscle will be negatively related to self-esteem. However, given Davison and McCabe's (2005) finding that sense of physical attractiveness Physical attractiveness is the perception of the physical traits of an individual human person as pleasing or beautiful. It can include various implications, such as sexual attractiveness, cuteness, and physique. is related to self-esteem, it is believed men's assessment of their sexual attractiveness and skill will mediate MEDIATE, POWERS. Those incident to primary powers, given by a principal to his agent. For example, the general authority given to collect, receive and pay debts due by or to the principal is a primary power. desire for muscle's relationship to self-esteem. Muscle will factor strongly into their assessment of their sex lives, which, in turn, is a reflection of their sense physical attractiveness. Finally, while desire for thinness will be assessed, it is believed that it will have no relationship to drive for muscle, men's sex lives, nor self-esteem, as thinness is not culturally expected in men. Method Participants Male undergraduates who self-identified as heterosexual (N = 105) were recruited using the Experimentrak online recruitment system (Experimentrak, Inc.; Las Vegas Las Vegas (läs vā`gəs), city (1990 pop. 258,295), seat of Clark co., S Nev.; inc. 1911. It is the largest city in Nevada and the center of one of the fastest-growing urban areas in the United States. , NV). Mean age of participants was 19.8 years (S.D. = 1.5). The men had completed an average of 2.1 (S.D. = 1.0) years of post-secondary education, with four undergraduate years represented. Participants were mainly White (n = 79), though other races were represented. Additionally, participants primarily identified as Christian (Catholic, n = 40; Protestant, n = 17) or agnostic/atheist (n = 17), with other religious beliefs represented in smaller numbers. Mean height was 69.9 in. (177.8 cm) (S.D. = 3.1 in; 7.8 cm); mean weight was 170.5 lbs (77.3 kg) (S.D. = 33.5 lbs; 15.2 kg). Thus, mean body mass index (BMI BMI body mass index. BMI abbr. body mass index Body mass index (BMI) A measurement that has replaced weight as the preferred determinant of obesity. ; a standard measure of body mass) was 24.5 kg/[m.sup.2]. Using standard BMI groupings (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), agency of the U.S. Public Health Service since 1973, with headquarters in Atlanta; it was established in 1946 as the Communicable Disease Center. [CDC See Control Data, century date change and Back Orifice. CDC - Control Data Corporation ], 2006), four participants were underweight Underweight An situation where a portfolio does not hold a sufficient amount of securities to satisfy the accepted benchmark of the portfolio's asset allocation strategy. Notes: (BMI < 18.5), 59 were normal weight (BMI 18.5-24.9), 33 were overweight (BMI 25.0-29.9), and eight were obese o·bese adj. Extremely fat; very overweight. obese characterized by obesity. obese adjective Characterized by obesity, see there; excessively fat (BMI > 30). Materials Sexual Body Efficacy and Attractiveness Scale (SBEAS). Participants completed a 10-item questionnaire, developed for this study, regarding their perceived efficacy as lovers, willingness to engage in various sexual activities, the attractiveness of their body during sex, and overall satisfaction with their sex lives. Seven of the questions were modified from those used by Ackard and associates (1997, 2000), while two were modified from those used by Wiederman and Pryor (1997) and one was original to this study. Responses were scored on a 5-point Liken lik·en tr.v. lik·ened, lik·en·ing, lik·ens To see, mention, or show as similar; compare. [Middle English liknen, from like, similar; see like2 scale (see Appendix). The SBEAS demonstrated a moderate degree of internal reliability, with a Cronbach's alpha Cronbach's  (alpha) has an important use as a measure of the reliability of a psychometric instrument. It was first named as alpha by Cronbach (1951), as he had intended to continue with further instruments. of .75. An item
analysis was subsequently conducted, and it was discovered that item 3
exhibited particularly poor correlation to all other items, and to the
total score. Item three was subsequently dropped from the total score,
and all further analyses simply used the combined score from the other
nine items. Elimination of item three allowed for a Cronbach's
alpha of .79 to be obtained, suggesting an acceptable degree of internal
reliability.
Additionally, the SBEAS demonstrated face validity face validity (fāsˑ v  ·liˑ·di·tē),n through its relationship with two of the questions regarding actual sexual activity. In particular, the SBEAS was significantly and positively correlated to number of sexual partners, r(104) = .22, p = .02, and negatively associated with age at first masturbation, r(104) = -.21, p = .03. Thus, men with a high degree of esteem toward their own sexual bodies had put their sexual bodies on display to a greater number of people and engaged sexually with their bodies at a younger age. While future work is required to further elucidate e·lu·ci·date v. e·lu·ci·dat·ed, e·lu·ci·dat·ing, e·lu·ci·dates v.tr. To make clear or plain, especially by explanation; clarify. v.intr. To give an explanation that serves to clarify. the psychometric psy·cho·met·rics n. (used with a sing. verb) The branch of psychology that deals with the design, administration, and interpretation of quantitative tests for the measurement of psychological variables such as intelligence, aptitude, and properties of this scale, the above data provided assurance as to the reliability and validity of the scale as a total score for use in the present study. Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale. Participants also completed the 10-item Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, a measure of global self-esteem (Rosenberg, 1989), responding on a 4-point Likert scale Likert scale A subjective scoring system that allows a person being surveyed to quantify likes and preferences on a 5-point scale, with 1 being the least important, relevant, interesting, most ho-hum, or other, and 5 being most excellent, yeehah important, etc . The instrument frequently has been used in research regarding male body image and has been shown to have excellent psychometric properties (e.g., Davison & McCabe, 2005; Duggan & McCreary, 2004; Hatoum & Belle, 2004; McCreary & Sasse, 2000; Olivardia, Pope, Borowiecki, & Cohane, 2004). In the present study, the scale demonstrated a high degree of internal consistency In statistics and research, internal consistency is a measure based on the correlations between different items on the same test (or the same subscale on a larger test). It measures whether several items that propose to measure the same general construct produce similar scores. ([alpha] = .89). Demographic questions. Participants were also asked to report the number of lifetime sexual partners; age at first sexual encounter; age at first masturbation; current age; height (in feet and inches); mass (in pounds); race; academic year; and religious identification. Somatomorphic Matrix. The somatomorphic matrix is a computer-based program that assesses both perceived muscular inadequacy and perceived over-fatness. The program presents, one-at-a-time, prompts for which the user must select an appropriate body in response. Specifically, the prompts ask the user to select a body which (a) best represents his own current body ("current"); (b) best represents his own ideal body ("goal"); (c) best represents the body of an average man of the same age ("average"); (d) the body women desire most in a man ("attractive"); and (e) the female body the user finds most attractive. Beside the prompt is a drawn line body, which the participant can make more or less muscular, and more or less fat, by using a mouse device to click on on-screen on·screen or on-screen adj. & adv. 1. As shown on a movie, television, or display screen. 2. Within public view; in public. "buttons," which indicate "more muscular," "less muscular," "fatter," and "thinner," respectively. A new line body is then shown on the screen in response to the participant's modifications. Muscle increases in fat free mass index (FFMI FFMI Feri Fund Market Information (European fund research specialist) , a measure of lean weight) multiples of 1.5 kg/[m.sup.2] with a minimum of 16.5 kg/[m.sup.2] and maximum of 30 kg/[m.sup.2]; the starting muscle displayed is the midpoint mid·point n. 1. Mathematics The point of a line segment or curvilinear arc that divides it into two parts of the same length. 2. A position midway between two extremes. of the scale, 22.5 kg/[m.sup.2]. Fat increases in body fat percentage (BF%) multiples of 4% body fat, with a minimum of 4% and a maximum of 40%; the starting fat displayed is the midpoint of the scale, 20% body fat. These dimensions thus create a 10xl0 matrix of bodies, with ten possible levels of muscle, and ten possible levels of fat. Upon finding the body which best answers the prompt, the user clicks on a button indicating "select this image," which saves the image dimensions selected into a database, and brings up a new prompt, returning the body to the midpoint dimensions. The development and psychometric properties of the matrix are described by Gruber and colleagues (1999); the program has been used in various studies regarding body image (e.g., Campbell, Pope, & Filiault, 2005; Hausmann, Mangweth, Walch, Rupp, & Pope, 2004; Leit, Gray, & Pope, 2002; Olivardia, Pope, Borowiecki, & Cohane, 2004). The program was run in Filemaker Pro 7 (Filemaker, Inc., Santa Clara Santa Clara, city, Cuba Santa Clara (sän`tä klä`rä), city (1994 est. pop. 217,000), capital of Villa Clara prov., central Cuba. , CA) in Windows XP The previous client version of Windows. XP was a major upgrade to the client version of Windows 2000 with numerous changes to the user interface. XP improved support for gaming, digital photography, instant messaging, wireless networking and sharing connections to the Internet. Professional Edition (Microsoft Corp., Redmond, WA) on an IBM (International Business Machines Corporation, Armonk, NY, www.ibm.com) The world's largest computer company. IBM's product lines include the S/390 mainframes (zSeries), AS/400 midrange business systems (iSeries), RS/6000 workstations and servers (pSeries), Intel-based servers (xSeries) Thinkpad laptop using a wireless external mouse device. Procedures After giving consent to participate, participants completed a pen-and-paper survey packet that included the SBEAS, Rosenberg, and demographic questions. Upon completion of the paper portion of the study, participants completed questions 1-5 of the somatomorphic matrix and were then given a debriefing de·brief·ing n. 1. The act or process of debriefing or of being debriefed. 2. The information imparted during the process of being debriefed. Noun 1. form. The following paired t-test comparisons were made, using the data from the Somatomorphic Matrix: * Goal muscle--current muscle ("muscle from goal") * Average muscle--current muscle ("muscle from average") * Attractive muscle--current muscle ("muscle from attractive") * Current fat--goal fat ("fat from goal") * Current fat--average fat ("fat from average") * Current fat--attractive fat ("fat from attractive") Sexual body efficacy and attractiveness was determined by summing the items from the SBEAS, with reverse scoring for some items. Self-esteem was determined by summing the items from the Rosenberg with reverse scoring for some items. Although the Rosenberg was originally designed on a Guttmann scale, more contemporary research (e.g., Davison & McCabe, 2005; Duggan & McCreary, 2004; McCreary & Sasse, 2000; Olivardia, Pope, Borowiecki, & Cohane, 2004) have used Likert scales. Body mass index was calculated using the adjustment for American measurements: (705*body mass in pounds)/(height in [inches.sup.2]). Individual ANOVAs were conducted to assess for differences between races, class years, and religious identifications regarding all measures of muscle dissatisfaction, all measures of fat dissatisfaction, SBEAS, self-esteem, BMI, number of sexual partners, age at loss of virginity Virginity See also Chastity, Purity. Agnes, St. patron saint of virgins. [Christian Hagiog.: Brewer Dictionary, 16] Atala Indian maiden learns too late she can be released from her vow to remain a virgin. [Fr. Lit. , and age at first masturbation, with Scheffe post-hoc testing conducted on significant main effects. Simple bivariate bi·var·i·ate adj. Mathematics Having two variables: bivariate binomial distribution. Adj. 1. correlations were conducted between: age, all measures of muscle dissatisfaction, all measures of fat dissatisfaction, sexual body efficacy, self-esteem, BMI, number of sexual partners, age at loss of virginity, and age at first masturbation. Although a correction is typically used on the alpha to account for increased chance of a type I error due to multiple comparisons, the standard .05 level was used for the present study since the bivariate correlations primarily were used as a screen for inclusion in multiple regressions Multiple regression The estimated relationship between a dependent variable and more than one explanatory variable. . Multiple regression of variables with significant relationships to self-esteem and sexual body efficacy were then conducted, with post-hoc Sobel z-tests conducted on variables meeting the theoretical assumptions for partial mediation (Baron & Kenny, 1986) All statistics were computed using SPSS A statistical package from SPSS, Inc., Chicago (www.spss.com) that runs on PCs, most mainframes and minis and is used extensively in marketing research. It provides over 50 statistical processes, including regression analysis, correlation and analysis of variance. version 13.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL). Results An ANOVA anova see analysis of variance. ANOVA Analysis of variance, see there revealed a main effect for academic class year upon number of sexual partners, F(3, 104) = 7.59, p <.001 ; a post-hoc Scheffe test revealed fourth year undergraduates reported significantly more sexual partners than first year students (p <.001), second year students (p = .001) and third year students (p = .04). A moderate positive correlation Noun 1. positive correlation - a correlation in which large values of one variable are associated with large values of the other and small with small; the correlation coefficient is between 0 and +1 direct correlation was found between age and number of sexual partners, r(102) = .37, p <.000. However, as age and academic class showed no relationship with any other variables, negating the need for statistical controls. Perceived over-fat. Participants rated themselves as being fatter than their goal BF%, t(102) = 4.4, p = .02; and fatter than the BF% believed to be found attractive by women, t(102) = 4.5, p <.001. However, the men perceived themselves as being less fat than the average man of the same age, t(102) = -2.1, p = .04. There was a significant positive correlation between all measures of fat dissatisfaction and BMI: fat from goal r(102) = -.506, p < .001; fat from average, r(103) = - .554, p < .001 ; fat from attractive, r(102) = -.555, p < .001. Fat from goal (r(102) = .21, p = .03) and fat from average (r(102) = .20, r =.04) were correlated with self-esteem. No measure of fat dissatisfaction bore correlation to the SBEAS or any of the sexual variables. Perceived muscular inadequacy. Men's goal level of muscle was significantly greater than the current perceived level of muscle, t(102) = 10.9, p <.001; the men also perceived the degree of muscle women find attractive significantly more muscular than the men's perceived current statures, t(102) = 4.8,p <.001. There was not a significant difference between the men's perceived muscle and that of the average man. There was not a significant relationship between any measure of perceived muscular inadequacy and BMI, and the correlations of all measures of perceived muscular inadequacy and perceived overfat were close to zero (range. 11 to .01) There was a significant correlation between muscle from goal and the SBEAS (r(104) = -.23, p =.02) and self esteem (r(104) = -.217, p = .03). Sexual behaviors and milestones. Participants' mean score on the SBEAS was 34.6 (S.D. = 5.7). Of the men, 102 (97.1%) reported sexual activity with at least one partner, with a mean of 5.0 partners (S.D. = 5.0). Of those who had engaged in sexual activity with another person, mean age at first encounter was 16.4 years (S.D. = 1.5). Mean age at first masturbation was 13.4 years (S.D. = 1.5), with 104 (99.0%) men having reported masturbating at least once during their lifetimes (See table 1 for all bivariate correlations.). Multiple regression analyses. A multiple regression analysis was conducted using the variables that expressed a significant relationship to self-esteem based on the simple correlations: Muscle from goal, fat from goal, fat from average, and the SBEAS. Of these, only the SBEAS ([beta] =.37, p = <.001) maintained a significant relationship with self-esteem. The above data suggested a potential partial mediation effect of sexual body efficacy and attractiveness upon perceived muscular inadequacy's relationship to self- esteem. A Sobel test for mediation was conducted, revealing such a significant partial mediation effect (z = -2.9, p = .003). Discussion The men in this sample expressed dissatisfaction with both their bodies' perceived levels of muscle and fat, as assessed through the somatomorphic matrix. However, there was a low level of correlation between these two body image indices, suggesting it may be different men who express each form of body image dissatisfaction, and that desire for thinness does not necessarily accompany desire for muscle. Thus, men desiring thinner bodies may not necessarily desire a conversion of fat to muscle, per se, but, instead, desire a whole-scale reduction of body mass. These results suggest the potential existence of two separate forms of body image issues in young men. While these findings support past studies' assessment that young men perceive themselves as being inadequately muscled, and desiring additional muscle mass (e.g., Grogan & Richards, 2002; McCreary & Sasse, 2000; Pope, Phillips, & Olivardia, 2000), they also challenge the dominant notion that men's desire for thinness is simply an expression of a desire for a lean, muscled body, and not simply a thin body (e.g., Andersen, Cohn, & Holbrook, 2000; Olivardia, Pope, Borowiecki, & Cohane, 2004; Pope, Phillips, & Olivardia; Ridgeway A ridgeway is a road or path that follows the highest part of the landscape. Roads and pathways
Aspects of both types of body image dissatisfaction--muscle and thinness--appear to negatively impact young men's overall sense of self, as evidenced by their negative relationship to global self-esteem. While both these factors contribute to dampened self-esteem, their impact upon self-esteem is likely by different paths, as suggested not only by their lack of correlation to one another, but thinness' lack of a relationship to any of the sexual indices. Only muscle from goal maintained a significant relationship to any of the sexual variables in this study. Indeed, those who perceived themselves as less muscular than they ideally would like to be harbored negative feelings about their ability as sexual partners. This negative sense of sexual efficacy, in turn, impaired self-esteem and partially mediated the relationship of this facet facet /fac·et/ (fas´it) a small plane surface on a hard body, as on a bone. fac·et n. 1. A small smooth area on a bone or other firm structure. 2. of muscle dissatisfaction upon self-esteem. The results suggest that dissatisfaction with one's current level of muscle can play a role in determining a man's sense of sexual ability, but this sense of sexual capacity is important in determining muscle's relationship with self-esteem. The relationship between muscle and men's sense of their sexual efficacy does not appear to be related to men's sense of attractiveness to women. In accord with prior work (Olivardia, Pope, Borowiecki, & Cohane, 2004), men in this sample did perceive their bodies to be less muscular than the body they believed women desired most. However, muscle from attractive was not significantly correlated to the SBEAS; only muscle from goal maintained such a relationship. In this sense, the relationship between muscularity and sexual efficacy is not due to a sense of unattractiveness, but, instead, may be due to a dampened sense of masculinity due to failure to achieve a goal or control one's body. Indeed, Western cultural expectations of masculinity include a man who is in control of himself and his body, and is able to achieve anything he chooses (Connell, 2005; Kimmel, 2006). As reported previously, muscularity is often associated with masculinity and traditionally male characteristics (Bordo, 1999; Drummond, 2001, 2002; Grogan & Richards, 2002). Furthermore, those who endorse high levels of masculine personality characteristics typically demonstrate increased drive for muscularity, perhaps in a desire to "be" more masculine or adhere to adhere to verb 1. follow, keep, maintain, respect, observe, be true, fulfil, obey, heed, keep to, abide by, be loyal, mind, be constant, be faithful 2. perceived social expectations of men (Kimmel & Mahalik, 2004; McCreary, Saucier, & Courtenay, 2005). Finally, drive for muscularity previously has been shown to be related to low self-esteem (McCreary & Sasse, 2000; Olivarida, Pope, Borowiecki, & Cohane, 2004). These prior studies, in combination with the present results, suggest muscle is a gender-specific, culturally-mandated body venue for men to demonstrate their masculinity. A man who perceives himself as inadequately muscular, and less muscular than he would ideally like to be, thus withstands a double threat to his masculinity--failure to achieve a body goal (thus a failure of self-control), and failure to adhere to ideal masculine body type. These threats to masculinity could, in turn, prompt a man to see himself as "less" of a man, and as such, an unsuitable as a sexual partner who is unable to bring pleasure to women or himself. This sense of ineffaciousness and masculine-inadequacy serves to diminish the man's liking of himself not only as a man, but as a person. This relationship between men's dissatisfaction with gender-mandated body area, sexual dissatisfaction/ineffaciousness, and self-esteem is similar to the results found in women with regard to thinness. Ackard and colleagues (2000), as well as others (e.g., Shulman & Home, 2003; Wiederman & Pryor, 1997) reported women high in drive for thinness--the gender specific feminine body domain (e.g., Brumberg, 1997; Forbes, Adams-Curtis, Rade, & Jaberg, 2001; Gordon, 2000)--also reported fewer sexual encounters, less of an ability to please self and partner, and lesser attractiveness as a sexual partner. All these factors were related to dampened self-esteem. These results provide additional support to the notion that dissatisfaction with the gender- specific body trait impairs one's sense of sexual effaciousness, which, in turn, impairs one's liking of self. In contrast, men's desire for thinness, in the current sample, had no relationship to the sexual variables. Thus, dissatisfaction in the non-gender-expected body domain does not seem to impact one's sense of sexual attractiveness and ability, perhaps because it does not impair one's sense of self as a man. While a man may see himself as too fat, this feeling does not impair his sense of masculinity, since thinness is not culturally expected for men, and fatness may even be expected for men (or at least tolerated; Schooler & Ward, 2006). Not seeing himself as deficient de·fi·cient adj. 1. Lacking an essential quality or element. 2. Inadequate in amount or degree; insufficient. deficient a state of being in deficit. as a man, a thinness-desiring man may engage in sexual activity without concern for his appearance, or doubt as to his masculinity or ability to give and receive pleasure. Yet, two areas of perceived overfat did relate negatively with self-esteem, though not through a sexual/masculine pathway. These two areas were fat from goal, and fat from average. A possible explanation for this relationship may be these two variables' correlation to BMI--many of those desiring to lose weight had an actual need to lose weight. Thus, it may be that these men are accurately assessing a health need, and, perceiving themselves as unhealthy (or at risk for health negatives) subsequently experienced a dampened liking for the self. However, actual BMI was not correlated to self-esteem, suggesting health-related concerns may not entirely explain this relationship. Grogan and Richards (2002) report the boys in their sample believed overweight was a legitimate reason to taunt peers, and overweight boys reported being the target of such cruel behavior. While it is possible the men in the present study were the targets of overweight prejudice, it is noteworthy that it was perceived overweight that negatively impacted self-esteem. The actual BMI, which would have been the visual target of peer taunting, was not related to self-esteem, suggesting not all of these thinness-desiring men have endured the prejudice related by the Grogan and Richards sample. It is possible, however, that while these men were not the direct targets of taunting, they have been witness to the social ostracism of fat, and, perceiving themselves as fat, felt taunted themselves, or at risk of taunting, through vicarious vicarious /vi·car·i·ous/ (vi-kar´e-us) 1. acting in the place of another or of something else. 2. occurring at an abnormal site. vi·car·i·ous adj. 1. learning. Finally, the lack of relationship between BMI and self-esteem may be an artifact A distortion in an image or sound caused by a limitation or malfunction in the hardware or software. Artifacts may or may not be easily detectable. Under intense inspection, one might find artifacts all the time, but a few pixels out of balance or a few milliseconds of abnormal sound of the limitations of BMI as an anthropometric an·thro·pom·e·try n. The study of human body measurement for use in anthropological classification and comparison. an measure of adiposity--BMI cannot account separately for fat mass and lean mass. Thus, those with high lean mass may be pleased with their body, and those with high fat mass displeased dis·please v. dis·pleased, dis·pleas·ing, dis·pleas·es v.tr. To cause annoyance or vexation to. v.intr. To cause annoyance or displeasure. with their bodies. BMI and global self-esteem, as reported in this study, cannot untangle that relationship. In any case, the drive for thinness in young men has received inadequate attention in comparison to drive for muscle, and future research should continue to determine the relationship between desire for thinness and self-esteem. The conclusions herein presented should be qualified. First, correlation does not denote de·note tr.v. de·not·ed, de·not·ing, de·notes 1. To mark; indicate: a frown that denoted increasing impatience. 2. causation causation Relation that holds between two temporally simultaneous or successive events when the first event (the cause) brings about the other (the effect). According to David Hume, when we say of two types of object or event that “X causes Y” (e.g. . Thus, it is possible that a poor sense of sexual efficacy could produce body image dissatisfaction in men. While multiple regression models can help to predict directionality, correlational research ultimately cannot determine causality causality, in philosophy, the relationship between cause and effect. A distinction is often made between a cause that produces something new (e.g., a moth from a caterpillar) and one that produces a change in an existing substance (e.g. . Results should be interpreted in that light. As such, future longitudinal work is needed in the area of men's body image so as to provide greater explanation not only of its etiology etiology /eti·ol·o·gy/ (e?te-ol´ah-je) 1. the science dealing with causes of disease. 2. the cause of a disease. , but of its consequences. Additionally, while the relationship between muscle, sexual efficacy, and self- esteem has been proposed to be impacted by the masculine gender role and cultural conflation (database) conflation - Combining or blending of two or more versions of a text; confusion or mixing up. Conflation algorithms are used in databases. of muscle as masculine, via past research findings (e.g., Drummond, 2002; Conneli, 2005; Kimmel & Mahalik, 2004; McCreary, Saucier, & Courtenay, 2005; Olivardia, Pope, Borowiecki, & Cohane, 2004), the present study did not directly assess masculinity. Future research may find it fruitful to assess masculinity's relationship to perceived sexual efficacy, and the mediating role of muscle between those two factors. The use of the SBEAS was novel to the present study. While previous research (Ackard, Kearney-Cooke, & Peterson, 2000; Wiederman & Pryor, 1997) has used items similar to these questions, this particular group of ten questions has never before appeared together. Results from the present study do suggest a promising level of internal consistency, though future research may consider assessing the temporal reliability of the scale. Further, while face validity was established in relation to these men's actual sexual habits and milestones, it may be useful to assess convergent and discriminative dis·crim·i·na·tive adj. 1. Drawing distinctions. 2. Marked by or showing prejudice: discriminative hiring practices. validity. Finally, it should be noted that the sample was fairly homogenous homogenous - homogeneous in terms of race and religious identification, was entirely heterosexual, was fairly well- educated and of a limited age group. Thus, these results may not be applicable to all men. It is interesting to note that, upon completion of the measures included in this study, many of the participants wished to talk to the researcher about their own experiences regarding body image and their sex lives. Ethics approval for the study did not provide for the collection of qualitative data, and, accordingly, notes were not taken regarding these conversations, nor will the content be reported. However, this desire of men to talk about their bodies suggests the need for more qualitative work regarding men's body image. While some qualitative work has been done in this area, most notably by Drummond (1996, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2005a, b, 2006), the qualitative literature is much more limited than that quantitative literature. Future research in this area should consider the use of a qualitative paradigm. The present study has demonstrated college-aged men are dissatisfied with their current levels of muscle and fat. While those two concerns may not be related, they both negatively impact a man's self-esteem, and perceived muscular inadequacy may further harm a man's sense of sexual efficacy and masculinity. Given the profound public health impact of body image dissatisfactions--ranging from disordered eating Disordered Eating is a term that is used by some people to describe a wide variety of irregularities in eating behavior that do not warrant a diagnosis of a specific eating disorder such as anorexia nervosa or bulimia nervosa. , to the use of harmful substances, and even sexual and social isolation--efforts must be made to promote healthy body image among men and confront the false assumption that muscle is masculine. The opportunity for a diversity of masculine bodies should be made possible to young men so as to counteract the destructive health patterns body image dissatisfactions can introduce.
Appendix
Original questions and scales for the
Sexual Body Efficacy and Attractiveness Scale (SBEAS).
Please answer the following questions regarding your self as accurately
and honestly as possible.
Please be careful to read the scale for each question, as the scales
differ from question-to-question.
1.) How often do you engage in sexual contact with another person?
1 2 3 4 5
every day less than
once a month
2.) When you do engage in sexual contact with another person,
how often are you the one who initiates the encounter?
1 2 3 4 5
never most of the time
3.) How often do you masturbate?
1 2 3 4 5
not at very often
all often
4.) How comfortable are you undressing in front of your partner?
1 2 3 4 5
very not at all
comfortable comfortable
5.) How comfortable are you about having sex with the lights on?
1 2 3 4 5
very not at all
comfortable comfortable
6.) How comfortable are you trying new sexual positions or activities?
1 2 3 4 5
not at all very comfortable
comfortable
7.) How do you feel about your ability to give your partner pleasure
sexually?
1 2 3 4 5
very not at all
competent competent
8.) How comfortable are you with your appearance while having sex?
1 2 3 4 5
very comfortable not at all
comfortable
9.) How often do you achieve orgasm when engaged in sexual activity?
1 2 3 4 5
never always
10.) Overall, how satisfied are you with your sex life?
1 2 3 4 5
not at all very
satisfied satisfied
The author would like to thank Dr. Elizabeth Kohler of the University of Massachusetts The system includes UMass Amherst, UMass Boston, UMass Dartmouth (affiliated with Cape Cod Community College), UMass Lowell, and the UMass Medical School. It also has an online school called UMassOnline. for her support and encouragement during the ethics proposal phase of this study. Further, the author would like to thank Dr. Marika Tiggemann of Flinders University The university has established a reputation as a leading research institution with a devotion to innovation. It is a member of Innovative Research Universities Australia and ranks among the leading universities in Australia. for her comments on an earlier version of this paper. References Ackard, D. M., Kearney-Cooke, A., Peterson, C. B. (1997, March). Sex survey: Does your body image affect your love life? Shape, 141-142. Ackard, D. M., Kearney-Cooke, A., Peterson, C. B. (2000). Effect of body image and self-image on women's sexual behaviors. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 28, 422- 429. Andersen, A. A., Cohn, L., & Holbrook, T. (2000). Making weight: Men's conflicts with food, weight, shape, and appearance. Carlsbad, CA: Gurze Books. Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology The Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (often referred to as JPSP) is a monthly psychology journal of the American Psychological Association. It is considered one of the top journals in the fields of social and personality psychology. , 51, 1173-1182. Bordo, S. (1999). The male body: A new look at men in public and in private. New York New York, state, United States New York, Middle Atlantic state of the United States. It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Atlantic Ocean (E), New Jersey and Pennsylvania (S), Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Canadian province of : Farrar, Straus, and Giroux. Brumberg, J. J. (1997). The body project: An intimate history of American girls American Girl, may refer to:
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Schooler, D., & Ward, M. (2006). Average Joes: Men's relationships with media, real bodies, and sexuality. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 7, 27-41. Shulman, J. L., & Home, S. G. (2003). The use of self-pleasure: Masturbation and body image among African American African American Multiculture A person having origins in any of the black racial groups of Africa. See Race. and European Women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 27, 262-269. Wiederman, M. W. (2000). Women's body image self-consciousness during physical intimacy “Caress” redirects here. For other uses, see Caress (disambiguation). Physical intimacy is informal proximity and/or touching. It can be enjoyed by itself and/or be an expression with a partner. The Journal of Sex Research, 37, 60-68. Wiederman, M. W., & Pryor, T. (1997). Body dissatisfaction and sexuality among women with bulimia nervosa. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 21, 361-365. Young, M. (1980). Body image and females' sexual behavior. Perceptual per·cep·tu·al adj. Of, based on, or involving perception. and Motor Skills, 50, 425-426. Shaun M. Filiault, Division of Health Sciences, University of South Australia South Australia, state (1991 pop. 1,236,623), 380,070 sq mi (984,381 sq km), S central Australia. It is bounded on the S by the Indian Ocean. Kangaroo Island and many smaller islands off the south coast are included in the state. . Ethics approval was given by, and data collection took place at, the University of Massachusetts at Amherst. Shaun M. Filiault is now a doctoral candidate in the Division of Health Sciences at the University of South Australia in Adelaide, Australia. Correspondence concerning this article should be sent to Shaun M. Filiault, Division of Health Sciences, University of South Australia, GPO Box 2471, Adelaide, SA 5000 Australia. Electronic mail: shaun. filiault@postgrads.unisa.edu.au
Table 1
Bivariate Correlations between Body Image, Sexual, and Demographic
Variables
SBEAS SE MG MAv MAt FG
SBEAS 1 .39 * -.22 * .07 .14 .05
Self-esteem 1 .22 * -.06 .11 .20 *
Musc. goal 1 .34 * .04 .05
Musc. ave. 1 .30 * -.11
Musc. attract. 1 .10
Fat goal 1
Fat ave.
Fat attract.
Partners
Virginity
Masturbate
BMI
Age
FAv FAt Pa Vi Ma BMI
SBEAS .07 -.01 .23 -.06 .21 * .14
Self-esteem .20 * .18 .11 -.10 -.01 -.04
Musc. goal -.02 .01 -.17 .16 .02 -.18
Musc. ave. .01 -.02 .07 -.05 -.01 .09
Musc. attract. .10 -.02 -.1 -.07 .09 -.02
Fat goal .65 * .76 * -.08 -.14 .15 -.51 *
Fat ave. 1 .79 * -.06 -.14 .04 -.55 *
Fat attract. 1 .05 -.01 .17 -.56 *
Partners 1 -.13 -.03 .02
Virginity 1 .12 .03
Masturbate 1 -.08
BMI 1
Age
Age
SBEAS .06
Self-esteem .02
Musc. goal -.14
Musc. ave. -.03
Musc. attract. -.12
Fat goal -.03
Fat ave. .10
Fat attract. .09
Partners .37 *
Virginity .17
Masturbate .09
BMI .00
Age 1
* p < .05
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