Managing conflict in teams and examining hiring assumptions.

Conflict is a beneficial aspect of work groups

Conflict is a natural part of being a team, and as such, is neither good nor bad. Research shows that successful conflict management creates effective teams; conflict helps teams to improve their organization, as well as to arouse and improve discussion and creative thinking.

The investigators found that there are two types of conflict: conflict that is good for teams and conflict that is detrimental to teams.

Conflict that is beneficial to teams was labeled cognitive conflict (C-conflict). It focuses on substantive issue-related differences of opinion and allows individuals to state their beliefs and understandings of a particular topic. C-conflict occurs as team members examine, compare, and reconcile their differences. C-conflict forces team members to look at underlying assumptions, facilitates frank discussion and offers alternatives, encourages innovative thinking and creativity, and positively influences decision-making skills.

Detrimental conflict is known as affective conflict (A-type conflict). This type of conflict provokes and feeds animosity toward and among team members. These disagreements tend to be personalized and individually oriented. A-type conflict lowers team effectiveness by provoking hostility, distrust, cynicism, and apathy in team members. It was found that in general, A-conflict emerged when C-conflict was corrupted (often through miscommunication, distrust, and personally-driven attacks).

Effective groups were characterized as those that managed conflicts to retain C-conflicts while preventing or minimizing A-conflicts. Group members focused on an issue; they established a formal agenda and followed it. When working on group tasks, effective groups stayed on task and stayed away from personality issues. Increased creativity came from listening to all viewpoints and asking for minority opinions. Open communication was critical to the successful management of C-conflicts. It allowed team members to challenge ideas and to speak freely, without fear of retribution, anger, or resentment. In this way, all team members were included and everyone's ideas were integrated into the group's ideas and decisions.

This research shows that teams must accept conflict, encouraging the good while stopping or preventing the bad. The team leader has a responsibility to help facilitate positive conflict. Amason, Thompson, Hochwarter, and Harrison found that to encourage C-conflict, team leaders should:

* disseminate an agenda early (which requires them to plan ahead and to be prepared and allows others to be prepared);

* state the team philosophy regarding conflict and back it up;

* provide the right environment for meetings (a comfortable place that encourages interaction);

* have behavior management strategies in mind before meetings;

* remain focused on the task and discussion;

* support the team; and

* be proactive rather than reactive.

Implications for camp

Any time people get together there are bound to be conflicts. All people have their own ideas, perceptions, and world views. These differences lead to conflicts, which, if managed well, can enrich a group. The first step to successful conflict management is understanding that conflict is necessary for group functioning and that it can be very beneficial.

By training staff in positive conflict management, camps and conference centers can increase their success. Camps can use written materials, administrative staff meetings, in-staff training, and reminders in the camp newsletter to teach group leaders effective ways to manage conflict. By staying on task and encouraging all viewpoints (and making a point to invite and include all viewpoints), conflict can be managed positively. Most of us enjoy and strive to work in settings in which creativity and a zest for living exist. By encouraging divergent views and ideas, we can enrich and enhance everyone's creativity.

Amason, A., Thompson, K., Hochwarter, W., and Harrison, A. (Autumn 1995). Conflict: An important dimension in successful management teams. Organizational Dynamics, 20-35.

Model development suggests research questions

People with disabilities often have a difficult time being hired for a job; even after they are hired they are often treated differently. Research indicates that employer stereotypes and attitudinal biases are a large cause of this problem. Researchers have found that employers often make false assumptions about job-related capabilities, performance levels, absenteeism, turnover rates, and the cost of accommodation. However, data show that employees with disabilities perform as well as, if not better than, non-disabled employees, have better safety records, and have lower turnover and absenteeism rates. Despite these facts, stereotypes and misperceptions exist.

Stone and Colella developed a model to help understand how people with disabilities are treated at work. By providing this framework, the authors hope to generate increased interest in disability issues and provide a guide for future research. In addition, the model may be helpful for those wishing to learn more about dispelling myths about people who have disabilities.

The model takes a multidisciplinary approach, using information from sociology, social psychology, and rehabilitation psychology. In addition, the model takes into account relevant legislation; organizational characteristics of the agency (technology, design, norms, policies, and practices); attributes of the disabled person (the nature of the disability, such as aesthetic qualities, potential danger, course, origin, concealability, and disruptiveness; performance level; gender; interpersonal style; race; and status/social power); attributes of coworkers and supervisors (demographic, personality, previous contact with individuals who are disabled); the nature of the job (ability requirements, interdependence, reward system); psychological consequences for coworkers and supervisors (categorization, stereotyping, expectations, affective states); coworker and supervisor job expectations; existing and potential treatment of the disabled person; and potential responses of the disabled person.

The model's framework emphasizes that the treatment of people with disabilities is influenced by coworker and supervisor beliefs about disabled people and their affective response to people with disabilities. Therefore, there is a need to change beliefs about people with disabilities as well as behaviors toward the disabled. This model may be helpful in providing a framework to make that happen.

Implications for camp

Misperceptions and attitudinal biases about employees who have disabilities exist in all fields, including camp. From anecdotal information, it appears that these biases successfully exclude people with disabilities from working in camps and conference centers as support staff, counselors, program staff, and, to some extent, office workers. It may be time for camps and conference centers, and those who are in positions of authority, to examine underlying concerns and hiring assumptions about people with disabilities.

We have long accepted the idea that participants with disabilities benefit from being associated with camp; some research has already been conducted in this area. This model can serve as a basis for research about people with disabilities who work in camp and conference center settings. Research questions that come to mind include: To what extent do people with disabilities work in camps and conference centers? How are these individuals treated by fellow employees, potential campers, and others constituents? Do people with disabilities face stereotypes? How are people with disabilities perceived by fellow employees, potential campers, and other constituents? What are the factors involved in hiring and retaining people with disabilities in camps and conference centers?

Stone, D. & Colella, A. (1996). A Model of Factors Affecting the Treatment of Disabled Individuals in Organizations. Academy of Management Review, 21(2), 352-401.

Deb Jordan, Re.D., is an associate professor of leisure services at the University of Northern Iowa. Send your letters and one-page summaries of research related to camp to: Research Notes, c/o Dr. Deb Jordan, Leisure Services Division, 203 East Gym, University of Northern Iowa, Cedar Falls, IA 50614-0161. Note: Only research completed within the past two years will be considered for review.