Male voices on body image.

This study examines male body image perceptions, motivations, and related behaviors through a qualitative approach. Eleven males between the ages of 18 and 25 participated in two semi-structured interviews. During the first interview, participants were presented with three pictures that represented different body types as well as two image scales that ranged in muscularity and adiposity. The images served to stimulate conversation about a number of questions posed. The follow-up interviews permitted the participants to voice additional information pertaining to the first interview as well as assess their comfort level with the interview process. Discussion surrounds the males' level of body satisfaction, perception of the ideal male physique, perceived influences, perceived psychosocial consequences, perceived motivations, and behaviors employed to attain or maintain their desired body type. Finally, the utilization of cross-gender interviewing when investigating male body image is addressed.

Keywords: male body image, body satisfaction, perceptions, motivations, behaviors, qualitative inquiry, cross-gender interviewing

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Body image, a multidimensional construct, can influence one's thoughts, emotions, and behaviors and may be revealed in attitudinal and perceptual components (Pruzinsky & Cash, 2002). Commonly investigated in female samples, research on male body image and accompanying behaviors has increased in recent years (Cafri & Thompson, 2004). Similar to the desired achievement of the thin ideal in females, attainment of a particular ideal has also been noted for males, specifically, the mesomorphic or muscular body type (Olivardia, Pope, Borowiecki, & Cohane, 2004). Again in line with the female literature on this topic, accompanying male body dissatisfaction as a function of desiring the mesomorphic ideal has been identified, as well as adverse psychosocial consequences, including depression and low self-esteem (Olivardia et al., 2004).

In addition to the potential mental health ramifications, attainment of the ideal build may result in the engagement of unhealthy behaviors associated with achieving muscle. For example, excessive weight lifting (Pope, Gruber, Choi, Olivardia, & Phillips, 1997), the consumption of supplements such as creatine (Olivardia et al., 2004), and the use of anabolic steroids (Wroblewska, 1997) have been reported to increase size and may present health risks for the user. Thus, it is important that we gain a better understanding of the potential mental and physical health consequences of male body image concerns.

Although research on male body image has increased, it is still quite limited in scope (Olivardia et al., 2004). A possible explanation for this dearth of research is a lack of appropriate measures to tap into concerns unique to men. Indeed, researchers have questioned the relevance of using existing questionnaires, designed from the female perspective, in male samples (Edwards & Launder, 2000). Hence, there appears to be a need for male body image questionnaire development that is driven from male conversation (Dittmar et al., 2000). To this end, the long-term objective of this research is to develop a male body image behavior questionnaire. With this long-term goal in mind, and considering that quantitative studies pertaining to body image-related perceptions, behaviors, and motivations dominate the literature, a qualitative approach was anticipated to be insightful, particularly given that male body image is not a widely discussed or even acknowledged topic of conversation among males (Pope, Phillips, & Olivardia, 2000).

It should not be assumed, however, that all methods of qualitative inquiry will provide insight into male body image. On the contrary, focus group methodology, for example, may create an atmosphere where insight into male body image could become a manifestation of social desirability. More specifically, participants may feel influenced by other peers that comprise the group and consequently be dishonest or less than forthright in their responses (Eder & Fingerson, 2002). Although open-ended comments (e.g., Morrison, Morrison, & Hopkins, 2003; Ridgeway & Tylka, 2005) and structured interviews (e.g., Blyth et al., 1981) have been used in past research, few have utilized a semi-structured interview approach. A semi-structured interview, however, may well provide the opportunity for males to share relevant information while allowing the researcher to guide the inquiry in the areas of interest. Thus, a semi-structured interview was deemed optimal for the investigation of male body image.

Having chosen this qualitative approach, and being female researchers, a secondary purpose for the research surfaced. Specifically, research has shown that the sex of the interviewer may play a role in qualitative inquiry (Schwalbe & Wolkomir, 2002). With respect to the topic of male body image, the sex of the interviewer may hinder disclosure of sensitive information. Indeed, some males who have been interviewed by women have voiced their concern about the ability of a female researcher to understand their position (Arendell, 1997). On the other hand, this challenge has been deemed useful because the interviewee may feel the need to become more descriptive in an effort to clearly define his standpoint. This element of elaboration may be lost with a male interviewer, as the interviewee may assume that his position is already understood (Rubin & Rubin, 1995). To our knowledge, no studies have examined the sex of the interviewer and the quality of the interview when investigating male body image. Thus, the question remains as to whether a male or female would be the preferred choice for a male being interviewed about male body image concerns. To obtain more insight into this question, all participants were first contacted by the female researcher but given the option of being interviewed by a male if they felt uncomfortable with a female interviewer. Moreover, the participant's comfort level with a female interviewer was further addressed.

In sum, the purpose of this study was to examine body image perceptions, motivations, and related behaviors in men through a qualitative approach. Specifically, we wanted to examine perceptions of the ideal male physique, practices/habits utilized to attain a desired body type, as well as motivations for attaining a desired body type. Participants were also asked to share information pertaining to various behaviors, perceptions, and motivations that were relevant to their peers.

PILOT STUDY

Given that the skill of the researcher is an important dimension to qualitative research (Yin, 2003), a pilot study with two participants was conducted to explore the appropriateness of the questions posed as well as to evaluate the ability of the interviewer to create an atmosphere where the participants felt comfortable to divulge potentially sensitive information. The principal investigator sought feedback pertaining to the clarity of questions and level of participants' comfort via e-mail. Participants were also asked to assess the interviewing skills of the principal investigator. More specifically, in a follow-up, they were asked (1) if they felt comfortable talking with the principal investigator, (2) if they had suggestions for what the principal investigator could do differently, and (3) whether there was anything related to male body image that they felt was not addressed and should be addressed in future interviews. Both participants shared positive comments with no suggestions for improvement. Upon review of the interview transcripts, however, two modifications to the interview guide were made. First, the addition of photographs and accompanying questions was deemed advantageous to facilitate discussion. Second, more specific questions pertaining to appearance and related behaviors were added to delve deeper into this area.

METHODS

PARTICIPANTS

Eleven males between the ages of 18 to 25 years (M = 21.18, SD = 2.27) and with an average body mass index of 24.02 (SD = 4.60) participated in the study. The participants were recruited in Ontario, Canada, and included five Francophones and six Anglophones. (1) Nine of the participants were recruited from a local university in various academic areas, including management, sociology, psychology, engineering, communications, and biotechnologies. The remaining two participants were recruited from a local fitness club. This convenience sample was deemed suitable as it was likely that students from varying departments within the university as well as a fitness club would provide a more varied sense of body image, as opposed to a sample solely recruited from one locale such as a fitness club where more emphasis on the physique may be observed.

MEASURES

The sources of data collection for this study were two semi-structured interviews, the Adult Figure Instrument (Collins, 1991), the Male Figure Drawings (Lynch & Zellner, 1999), and a demographic questionnaire. Other materials used included three photographs obtained from magazines, each depicting one of three different body types that can be best described as an endomorph, a mesomorph, and an ectomorph (Sheldon, Stevens, & Tucker, 1940). The figures reproduced here are drawings, created by the principal investigator, of the photographs that were obtained from commonly available magazines and viewed by the participants. The endomorphic individual was overweight, though not morbidly obese, and was in a seated position and unclothed from the waist up (see Figure 1). The mesomorphic individual was also unclothed from the waist up and was somewhat hyper-muscular, that is, with enlarged muscular development (see Figure 2). The ectomorphic individual wore a black T-shirt and was of a thin build (see Figure 3). To ensure that attention to body shape of the images was the focus of discussion, only the jaw line of each image was revealed. Noteworthy is the difficulty that was met when trying to locate both overweight and thin images of men from magazines.

[FIGURES 1-3 OMITTED]

The Adult Figure Instrument (AFI; Collins, 1991) is comprised of seven adult male images that increase in adiposity from the first figure to the seventh figure. The Male Figure Drawings (MFD; Lynch & Zellner, 1999) consist of nine adult male figures that increase in muscularity from the first figure to the ninth figure. To our knowledge, the psychometric properties of the AFI and MFD have not been examined in an adult sample. Finally, the demographic questionnaire contained information pertaining to height, weight, desired weight, and exercise habits of the participants.

PROCEDURE

Participants were first recruited via a poster requesting interested parties to contact the principal investigator. Upon contact, parties were then e-mailed an information sheet about the study that also indicated the option of being interviewed by a male if they felt uncomfortable with a female interviewer. The researcher reiterated this option via e-mail when scheduling a date and time for the interview to take place. No participants requested a male interviewer. All participants subsequently met with the researcher for the first interview, which ranged in time from a half hour to an hour. The content of the first semi-structured interview explored the perception of the ideal body type, level of participant body satisfaction with their current body shape, appearance-related behaviors, methods employed to attain or maintain the ideal body type, and motivations for attaining an ideal body type. All of the interview content, with the exception of level of body satisfaction with current body shape, was asked in the context of perceived peer beliefs and observed behavior.

With the permission of the participants, all interviews were audio taped. To stimulate conversation, the AFI, the MFD, and the three photographs previously described were presented during the first interview. Participants were first asked to identify their current and desired physique on the AFI and the MFD as well as to identify the image that best described their perception of what their peers, potential mates, and the media perceived to be the ideal physique. Participants were also presented with the three photographs and" asked to discuss their impression, if any, of the individuals depicted.

Subsequently, the interviews were transcribed and sent to the participants for their review. All of the participants were encouraged to examine the transcript to ensure that it was an adequate representation of the information they had provided. Participants were also encouraged to address any additional comments or points of clarification they deemed necessary at the second interview.

The follow-up interview lasted approximately seven to fifteen minutes in length and permitted the participants to voice additional information pertaining to the content of the first interview, as well as to discuss their comfort level with the interview process. Seven of the eleven participants agreed to participate in the follow-up interviews, with four taking place over the phone and the remaining three in person. Similarly to the first interview, the follow-up interview was sent to the participants for their evaluation and feedback.

DATA ANALYSIS

Data analysis was inductive with the data first broken down into descriptive units. Each descriptive unit was designated a number and manually coded in each transcript (Merriam, 1998). The interviews were subsequently coded into the Atlas.ti version 5.0 qualitative data analysis software program, which assisted in the organization of the data.

Credibility of the analysis was sought by examining whether others "saw" what the principal investigator "saw" in the data. To this end, two researchers independently read at least three of the same interviews and noted principal themes. One researcher was familiar with the content of the study, and the other was an experienced qualitative researcher. Credibility was also sought through inter-coder reliability--the examination of how consistent different coders are at coding the data. Intercoder reliability was deemed important in that it would reduce the subjectivity of the coding process. To this end, a third independent rater and the principal investigator first coded an interview simultaneously. Then, three transcripts were independently coded for the assessment of percent agreement, which improved through discussion of inconsistencies from 71 percent to 85 percent and 90 percent, respectively, for the three transcripts. Inter-coder reliability was deemed adequate when 90 percent agreement was achieved (Miles & Huberman, 1994). The principal investigator coded all remaining interviews. Finally, as noted earlier, the transcribed interviews were sent to the participants to establish authenticity. Participants were given instructions to delete information that, upon reflection, did not reflect their position or that, in retrospect, they preferred not to have revealed.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Descriptive information pertaining to the body satisfaction of each participant, as examined by the image scales, as well as level of exercise participation will first be discussed. This will be followed by the emergent themes from the data: (1) ideal physique and attributions, (2) perceived influences, (3) behaviors, (4) perceived motivations, and (5) perceived psychosocial consequences. A case description of the behaviors used by one participant to gain muscle as well as reduce fat will be described within the behaviors theme.

BODY SATISFACTION AND EXERCISE PARTICIPATION

Only one participant indicated that he did not participate in a sport, with two indicating involvement at the club level (competitive) and eight at the recreational level (noncompetitive). All but one of the eleven participants engaged in cardiovascular-related activities, and all but two participants engaged in resistance training. Table 1 provides more detailed information on the type of exercise participation, days per week, and length of time.

Via image scales and verbal descriptions, all but three participants (eight) indicated a desire to change their body shape. More specifically, five participants desired an increase in muscle size, three participants desired an increase in muscle size and a decrease in adiposity, and three participants expressed overall satisfaction with their current physique with one of the three indicating that a small increase in muscle size would not be unwelcome. The reader will recall that images from the MFD range in muscularity and that images from the AFI range in adiposity. The majority of current image selections (eight) were made from the MFD, suggesting that the majority of men perceived that they were somewhat muscular and lean. The other three current image selections were made from the AF! and most closely resembled image 5 on the MFD, with the addition of some adiposity in the lower stomach region (refer to Figure 4).

[FIGURE 4 OMITTED]

All desired selections, however, were made from the muscular MFD and exhibited more muscularity than the current image selections. Although it is not possible to decipher the amount of muscle weight the men desired from their selections on the MFD, Olivardia and colleagues (2004) recently found that the college men in their study desired an increase of approximately 25 pounds in muscle and a decrease of 8 pounds in adiposity. The desire to have a more muscular physique may be a potential consequence of exposure to the mesomorphic ideal via the media (Lorenzen, Grieve, & Thomas, 2004).

Emergent themes in the study will next be explored. Although content specific to the malaise of two participants will be discussed, it is important to note that not all of the participants expressed negative feelings in relation to body shape or related concerns. While the majority of participants desired a more muscular physique and some a decrease in adipose, many expressed a level of acceptance concerning how they looked. Although many studies report a high level of body dissatisfaction in men (Garner, 1997), our findings seem to coincide with those from a study conducted by Hoyt and Kogan (2001). That is, despite the fact that some of the male undergraduate students in their study exhibited dissatisfaction with their arms, abdomen, and chest, the majority were satisfied with how they looked. Although some men may express a desired body that differs from their current one, perhaps in actuality the preoccupation with attaining their desired physique is relatively minimal. Nonetheless, the ideal body type and, in particular, the attributions participants attached to the discussion of different body types emerged as relevant components of the ideal physique and attributions theme.

IDEAL PHYSIQUE AND ATTRIBUTIONS

When asked what they perceived the ideal physique to be, many in this study responded that it was tall, muscular, and lean. However, it was made clear by the participants that the desire to gain muscle should not be confused with the perceived image of Arnold Schwarzenegger or other media images depicting a hyper-muscular physique. Although eight participants desired to gain muscle size, seven of the eight disliked excessive muscular development, and some attached negative judgments or evaluations to a person who appeared preoccupied with body image or made comments that went beyond the person's body shape. In response to the picture of the mesomorphic body type, for example, William commented, "That guy spends a lot of time with his body, a little obsessed." Others provided similar evaluations in response to the most muscular images on the MFD. Matthew stated, "You spend all of your time in the gym and don't have a clue about what's happening in the world .... He's just all muscle and there's nothing else there."

Although five of the participants viewed the body shape represented in the picture of the ectomorphic individual as average or good, five commented on his clothing in quite opposite ways. One participant was envious of the individual's body as well as what he believed to be his "designer clothing." Three other participants took a different stance on his clothing, with one expressing a dislike for fashion and the other two indicating that the individual in the picture was vain and/or effeminate. A fifth participant referred to the individual as a "twink," which he defined as a male who had a skinny physique and could fit into smaller-sized clothing. The link between a thin physique and negative descriptions has been documented elsewhere (Kirkpatrick & Sanders, 1978).

Comments pertaining to the photograph of the overweight individual were also associated with negative qualities. When providing his impression of the photograph depicting an endomorphic body type, Steven commented, "Probably drinks a case of beer a week. Probably smokes a carton of cigarettes." Comments such as these were surprisingly descriptive. The belief that an excess of body fat can be attributed to bad behaviors has been noted by others (Kirkpatrick & Sanders, 1978; Thompson, Heinburg, Altabe, & Tantleff-Dunn, 1999). The association of large muscular development with negative evaluations was interesting as well. In their study with participants ranging in age from 6 to over 60 years, Kirkpatrick and Sanders (1978) noted that, although the mesomorph was seen as the most positive body type across all ages, participants from between the ages of 10 and 25 years provided positive as well as negative descriptors to this body type. One possible explanation purported by the authors was that the mesomorphic body type, though appreciated, emphasized a desirable characteristic the participants lacked, thereby leading to their negative perception. Another likely explanation is that the attainment of the mesomorphic body type was eventually deemed unrealistic and therefore no longer viewed as ideal (Kirkpatrick & Sanders, 1978).

The attributions associated with hyper-developed muscularity that were expressed by the participants may, in fact, be related to the participants' own degree of muscular development and level of fitness; that is, while many desired an increase in muscularity, none of the participants selected their current image from the most muscular images on the MFD. With a possible range of 1 through 9 on the MFD, desired image selections for 10 of the men ranged from 4.5 to 7.0. One participant provided a description rather than selecting a particular image. Comments provided by these participants indicated that, although muscular definition is desirable, the degree of muscularity as portrayed in men's fitness magazines may be an exaggeration of what some males find to be ideal. This was further corroborated when the males in this study were asked to identify a media ideal body type from the image scales; all participants selected an image from the MFD, that is, a muscular image. Our participants' selections of a media ideal body type had a greater range of muscular development (6 to 8.5) than their own desired selections. This aligns with several of our participants' views that the media presents an exaggerated ideal. As Brad noted, "Males are made to be more muscular than I would say 95% of our society, but it doesn't mean it's our own objective or an ideal." This finding coincides with an earlier study conducted by Collins and Plahn 0988) where a mesomorphic body type of a medium muscular build was viewed as ideal, as well as a recent study where greater muscularity but yet not hyper-muscularity was desired (Ridgeway & Tylka, 2005).

Interestingly, when asked to identify the image that they thought their friends would identify as ideal, nine of the participants chose similar images to the media perception of the ideal body type, with a range in selection from 5 to 9.0. One participant indicated that his friends would not comment on an ideal for fear of being construed as gay. Another participant selected images 4 and 5 on the AFD, and one of the l0 who selected an image from the MFD also identified 3.5 on the AFD as well. Recall that these AFD images most closely resemble image 5 on the MFD, but on the AFD there is some adiposity in the lower stomach region. Finally, when asked to identify the image that a potential mate would find ideal, 10 participants selected images on the MFD ranging from 5 to 7, with the remaining participant indicating that potential mates did not prefer a particular image.

Perceived image selections for what the media, peers, and potential mates found to be ideal did not greatly differ from one another, and typically it was not the desired body type of the participant. Refer to Table 2 for a distribution of frequencies on the MFD for the media, friends, potential mates, and the desired image of the participants.

PERCEIVED INFLUENCES

Three influences on the participants' perception of an ideal physique emerged from the data: the media, potential mates, and peers. Although participants' descriptions and associated attributes of the ideal diverged to some extent from the media, peer, and potential mate ideals, these sources may still have influenced the development of their perceptions to a degree. When illustrating ideals, for example, eight participants referred to actors or models in their discussion. Evan stated, "not Arnold Schwarzenegger built but maybe Jean-Claude van Damme, Vin Diesel look, something like that." Three participants referred to the media via television and magazines, the Internet, and health supplement stores as vehicles for advertising different products for weight gain products.

Five participants commented on societal beliefs, with Steven specifically commenting on the perceived ideal body type presumably conveyed to the population via mainstream media (i.e., magazines, television, movies):

   Again society ... only show[s] men who are smooth, not hairy
   chested, have a certain physique, have a certain [endowment] and
   smile.... So a lot of us feel we have to conform to that stereotype
   or ideal in order to get the girl.

Related to this quotation was a source of influence from girls/potential mates. The benefit of having a good body for attracting girls did not go unmentioned. However, though many recognized the increased possibility of attracting a potential mate, having or attaining a good body was not a determining factor for a relationship. Alex commented:

   I would rather have a person like me for who I am rather than my
   body.... Like, I know you get muscles and girls will want to
   sleep with you. I'm not denying the fact, I'm just saying it's not
   what drives me.

Peers were a noted source of influence for five of the 11 participants who recalled past instances where they had been teased. Four of the five participants were teased because they were overweight, and one participant was teased because he was underweight. The teasing occurred when they were younger, yet the awareness of their bodies at the time the teasing took place was particularly clear, as is evident by Matthew's comment: "They were stronger, muscular, some of them were developing physically and I was still young, not strong and also chubby."

The majority of research on teasing and its relationship to body image has been examined in female samples (Gleason, Alexander, & Somers, 2000). Research has shown, however, that peers are often the sources of teasing and that teasing itself can predict as well as interact with body dissatisfaction in obese males (Womble et al., 2001). Moreover, being teased because of one's weight in childhood may have adverse effects on body image in later life (Gleason et al., 2000). As indicated by Evan, "I was very heavily teased in school, so I was very aware of what I looked like and what people thought of me. So it wasn't very difficult to attach that to insecurities later on."

Developmental theory espouses that body image concerns may be derived from negative commentary and teasing (Heinberg, 1996) and may therefore explain the resulting body image concerns described above. Thus, given the noted consequences of teasing, it is not surprising that all participants in this study who indicated past occurrences of teasing also desired a change in body shape. What became evident was that participants did more than simply desire a change in body shape.

BEHAVIORS

All participants indicated the employment of behaviors for the purposes of muscle gain, weight loss, or maintenance of their current weight. Although physical activity and food-related behaviors were foremost among those strategies noted, avoidance and appearance-related behaviors also emerged as relevant for some of the participants.

Methods to Gain Size. Methods to gain size encompassed both exercise and eating strategies. Of the eight participants who indicated a desire for an increase in muscularity, almost all reported weight lifting as the method of physical activity used for muscle gain and tone. Four of the eight participants who desired to gain size also reported that they consumed whey protein supplement (concentrated amounts of protein in a powder form) and/or sought an increase in protein consumption in the form of food, shakes, or bars. An increase in the amount of carbohydrates was also a noted method to gain size. Brandon indicated that he had taken androstenedione, a weight supplement, with another participant incorporating liquid creatine into his weight gain regime. Of particular interest was Brandon's awareness of the potential danger accompanying the employment of androstenedione: "The androstenedione stuff that's just not healthy stuff ... that's not worth it you know and then the weight gain stuff, it was just no, ... I'm doing this for the wrong reasons and I got to stop doing it...." Androstenedione, a precursor to testosterone, has little effect on muscle gain. It may, however, have adverse effects on the health of the user (see King et al., 1999). Users may therefore have misinformed ideas about what the supplement can actually accomplish in terms of muscle gain.

No participants indicated the use of steroids, although four participants knew of friends who had used steroids. It is not clear, however, whether these friends were involved in sports, where a muscular physique would give them a performance advantage, or whether they were using steroids for appearance-related reasons. Although many researchers have indicated that steroid use is prevalent in males (Spitzer, Henderson, & Zivian, 1999), the actual occurrence rates in a general sample of men may in fact be low. For example, when examining the factor structure of the Drive for Muscularity Scale, McCreary, Sasse, Saucier, and Dorsch (2004) discovered that an item pertaining to the contemplation of steroid use did not load onto either of the two factors present on the scale, which were Muscularity-Oriented Body Image and Muscularity Behavior. The authors concluded that the failure of the item to load onto either factor may have resulted from a lack of variability of responses, with the majority of participants indicating that they had never considered using steroids. Actual steroid use, not just considering it, may be more prevalent in the body building community or in particular sports where competition is high. For example, steroid use in professional sports would be potentially associated with the type of sport, level, and consequential steroid use (Millman & Ross, 2003). Indeed, Blouin and Goldfield (1995) found that the body builders in their study reported significantly greater steroid use than did runners and martial artists. Moreover, the competitive body builders reported significantly greater steroid use than did body builders who were considered recreational.

Methods to Lose Weight. Although only three participants indicated a desire to lose weight, all participants indicated that they engaged in some form of cardiovascular activity. Eating behaviors connected to weight loss included watching the intake of food, which encompassed a number of associated behaviors. More specifically, participants claimed to reduce larger meals into smaller meals throughout the day, to avoid sweets and junk food, and to increase fruit and vegetable consumption, with one participant noting that he avoided mixing starches with protein. As well, an overall awareness of the amount of calories consumed in one day was also a noted strategy for weight loss.

Although Jeffrey did not directly indicate a desire to lose weight, he noted that he had used fat-burning pills that contained ephedrine as a more extreme method of weight loss in the past. Usage of the pills was discontinued as an aid to weight loss when he began experiencing side effects similar, as he expressed, to what one may experience when drinking too much coffee. "I was shaking a bit and my heart seemed to be faster than usual." The use of supplements such as ephedrine to lose fat has also been reported in college students (Olivardia et al., 2004). Given the noted side effects of ephedrine use, including an increase in heart rate (as described above), increased blood pressure, and stimulation of the central nervous system (Astrup, Breum, Toubro, Hein, & Quaade, 1992), its use as an aid to burn fat is not recommended. Fortunately, the participant in this study ceased use of the fat-burning pill upon experiencing undesirable side effects. Two participants also noted that they had friends who had used fat-burning pills. With the exception of Jeffrey, the behaviors indicated for the purpose of losing weight were relatively safe. No participants, for example, indicated severe diet restriction, purging, or using laxatives--behaviors more commonly observed in female samples (Croll, Neumark-Sztainer, Story, & Ireland, 2002).

Others have found that dieting behaviors, such as watching one's intake of food, may accompany behaviors to increase muscle size in those with muscle dysmorphia (Pope et al., 1997) and in body builders (Blouin & Goldfield, 1995). As noted earlier, a lean muscular build is characteristic of the mesomorphic body type. The three participants in the current study who expressed a desire to lose fat also desired an increase in muscle and engaged in behaviors to increase muscle size. A case description of a male in the study is presented next to illustrate the extent to which behaviors utilized in the pursuit of a desired body type can take over one's life.

CASE DESCRIPTION

Noteworthy is the regime described by Steven in his effort to attain more muscle and reduce fat. At the time of the interview this participant was eating smaller meals throughout the day and engaging in cardiovascular activities to lose weight, as well as exploring "super setting," that is, using resistance training with opposite muscle groups to gain muscle. This regime is not extraordinary, however, in the past the average day for this participant was more extreme. Steven reported the following:

   I'd wake up [and] have two large glasses of water. I'd have my
   multi-vitamin. I'd have my tablespoon of flaxseed oil. I'd go in
   the gym, I'd work out. Right after that I'd have a nap or I'd have
   a protein shake for my post workout meal, then I'd have something
   mid morning, then I'd have something right at lunch. Again, a
   protein and a carb and then have something mid afternoon, which
   would be a shake. Then I'd have something at dinner, something
   before bed, and it was always just like that. It just, it became
   too tedious.

Steven had also tried the Atkins diet (2) as a method of weight loss before he eventually abandoned the before-mentioned schedule due to the realization that there was more to life than "being a slave to a schedule." Nonetheless, the schedule points to the amount of time and consequent quality-of-life issues affecting those men who envelop their lives around their desire to modify their body shape.

Avoidance. Five of the eleven participants referred to avoidance behaviors in relation to their level of body dissatisfaction. This pertained to particular situations as well as to the use of clothing. One participant preferred to wear long pants rather than shorts due to dissatisfaction with the excessive hair on his legs. Two other participants indicated wearing baggy clothes in the gym and/or dark clothes to appear thinner. Avoidance of situations, both past and present, where the body would be revealed to others was among the most commonly noted, including in the gym, in the locker room, at the beach, and at the swimming pool. As Alan indicated,

   We would have pool parties or something and I wouldn't take off
   my shirt just because I knew that, you know, underneath I looked
   slightly different from, from most of the other boys and I felt
   really uncomfortable. So, I would either swim with a shirt on or I
   wouldn't swim at all.

Another participant, Alex, had the condition known as gynecomastia, a condition found in males under the age of 18 that is associated with an increase in mammary glands from an excess of both testosterone and estrogen (Storch et al., 2004). His condition was the main reason he wore clothing that was not tight fitting, as well as avoided situations where his body would be revealed to others.

Avoidance of situations where the body could be revealed has also been noted with men who exhibit muscle dysmorphia (Pope et al., 1997). The use of clothing as a strategy to conceal the body was also found in a study conducted by Frith and Gleeson (2004) with male undergraduate students. Avoidance is therefore a likely coping strategy for the anxiety or discomfort associated with exposure of the body to others.

Appearance. Overall, this study's participants did not appear to devote a great deal of time on their appearance. Notable, however, are the behaviors related by a few of the participants pertaining to grooming, exercise, and clothing. The majority of the participants preferred clothing that was comfortable, with only one participant expressing particular interest in the style of clothing he wore and two participants indicating that they wore more fitted clothing when going out socially with the purpose of accentuating their physiques. Another participant also noted that his friends wore tight fitting clothing for this same purpose.

Many of the participants also identified their hair as a source of grooming behavior. Two participants in particular appeared to devote considerably more attention to their hair than the others. More specifically, one of these participants used a thickening shampoo as well as hair spray as part of his styling regime. Another participant indicated that he dyed his hair, trimmed his facial, chest, and pubic hair when needed, and also had his back waxed. Removing hair for the purpose of appearing more defined was also a behavior one participant observed of others.

Exercise as it related to the accentuation of a desired characteristic was also noted. Working out before a social event to appear more muscular was noted by three of the participants. While two of the three did not engage in this behavior themselves, it was an observed behavior of their friends. One participant also indicated that a friend expressed particular excitement when he noticed that a vein was becoming more visible. Another participant also acknowledged that he targeted the training of specific muscle groups that were visible to others when engaging in resistance training.

Sociocultural theory--the influence of values and beliefs from the greater culture and/or society at large (Heinberg, 1996)--may help explain the weight loss, weight gain, avoidance, and appearance-related behaviors reported by the participants. Internalization of the perceived mass media portrayed ideal may increase body dissatisfaction and result in behavioral as well as psychosocial consequences. The latter of these consequences will be discussed later. Indeed, a number of studies have noted a relationship between exposure to media ideals and body dissatisfaction in men (Grogan, Williams, & Conner, 1996; Leit, Gray, & Pope, 2002; Lorenzen et al., 2004; Morry & Staska, 2001).

PERCEIVED MOTIVATIONS

Related to the behaviors previously described are the motivations behind their engagement. Motivations for engaging in physical activity and/or eating behaviors to gain size and/or to lose weight and for maintenance included psychological components, health and fitness, social dimensions, and career-related aspects. Psychological components included an overall reduction in stress, time for reflection, and an increase in confidence perhaps best summed up by Carl's comment, "altogether you feel better about yourself."

Health and fitness motivations for engaging in physical activity and/or eating behaviors were noted in a number of interviews. Participants identified a "healthy physique" as having a role in disease prevention, such as heart disease. The association between exercise and a longer life span was also noted. As Colby stated, "Exercise is so important; you gotta stay healthy to live longer." Related to this improvement or maintenance of their level of fitness was the idea of improving their level of energy and overall endurance to be able to participate in activities for a longer duration of time. As noted by Jeffrey, "I'd like to have more endurance ... when I go to play soccer with some friends and I can't compete with them cause ... I can't go as fast."

Quantitative examinations of motivation in males have consistently identified fitness as well as health as primary reasons for exercise (Smith, Handley, & Eldredge, 1998). The health belief model--motivations to engage in behaviors that are fueled by preventative health measures (Becket & Maiman, 1975)--would help to explain the health-related motivations reported by the participants. In addition to health-related motivations, open-ended comments obtained from male university students in response to the question "why do you want to be muscular" (Morrison et al., 2003, p. 117), indicated that increased sport ability, increased strength, and social benefits such as overall attractiveness and attractiveness to women were also reported.

Many of the participants in this study pointed to being noticed or attracting a potential mate. Carl commented, "It's not just the body, but the body makes the first impression." Six of the participants referred to the underlying drive, instinctual and primal in nature, that fuels potential mates to desire a muscular body type. Alex remarked,

   It's the whole mating selection thing, the female will look at the
   strongest male, the one that's most likely to protect her offspring
   and stuff like that. So I'm, I'm pretty sure like in your mind even
   though you don't realize it ... you do mate with people that
   subconsciously you think are more fit to protect you and provide
   [for] you.

The belief that women associate muscularity with a certain level of protection has merit (Singh, 1995). Research has also shown that women do, in fact, find men who exhibit characteristics of strength to be more sexually attractive (Wade, 2000).

Some participants also pointed to career-related motivations, such as the impression that a fit physique may have on potential employers. They argued that the likelihood of being hired increased with a good physique. A good physique would be associated with the willingness of the applicant to apply some of the dedication put toward his physique to the company. Indeed, research has shown that men of average build receive higher salaries than men who are overweight or slim (Melamed, 1994).

Other motivations to attain an ideal body type that fell under the social aspect of motivation were (1) being accepted by others, (2) making a good impression, and (3) being competitive with other men. As Allan noted, a muscular physique was viewed as a message to other men of a greater level of strength, "to show off to the other guys, to tell them that, you know, I am stronger, I am better looking than you are." This motivation may be linked to the rising prevalence of the gender parity notion in sociocultural theory. This view asserts that male body image awareness has increased with the decline in the male breadwinner role and the introduction of women's emerging and expanding roles in Western society (Pope et al., 2000). Muscle size is thus the only male characteristic women are unable to equal (Kimmel, 1996; Mishkind, Rodin, Silberstein, & Striegel-Moore, 1986; Pope et al., 2000). Indeed, men who have more traditional gender role views desire to be more muscular (McCreary, Saucier, & Courtenay, 2005). The gender parity notion may therefore be related to the competitiveness associated with muscular development, as it is a noticeable sign of masculinity.

PERCEIVED PSYCHOSOCIAL CONSEQUENCES

Given that many of the men in this study desired a body shape that differed from their current physique, it became important to explore whether their desire was coupled with distress. Many of our participants expressed a current level of acceptance of their body shape. Although some expressed a certain level of guilt if they missed a workout, this guilt did not appear particularly distressing for them. Two participants, however, had once experienced a past preoccupation and subsequent concern with trying to attain their desired body shape. Evan stated,

   I had a breakdown and had a depression and almost flunked out of
   high school.... Now at that time my self-image, my ideal
   self-image, was so far from the actual self that it was like trying
   to jump the Grand Canyon.

Evan eventually turned to a therapist, whom he was still seeing at the time of his interview, to help him cope with his feelings of distress. The self-described distress experienced by this participant seems to coincide with the psychosocial ramifications, including poor self-esteem and depression, recently found in a sample of male university students (see Olivardia et al., 2004). Brandon described himself as being 5'8" in height and weighing 100 pounds when he was a grade seven student. He began to use weight gain products and ultimately turned to a therapist for help when his feelings of distress concerning his lack of weight became overpowering: "For me it seemed overwhelming and that's why I kind of, in a way, reached out to weight gaining and then this, and then legitimately reached out to a doctor who could help me. It seemed overwhelming for sure." Brandon went on to express that circumstances may have been different for him if he had received better information about the inadequacies other males also experienced. "If I would have had the necessary tools growing up and the whole way through, I would've probably never done the weight gain, cause it just wouldn't have been an issue really."

These life experiences corroborate researchers' cries for health-related programs designed for males (McCreary & Sasse, 2000; Winzelberg, Abascal, & Taylor, 2002) such as the educational self-esteem program titled "Everybody's Different," which was designed to improve body image and has been shown to be successful for males (O'Dea & Abraham, 2000). Certainly, the inclusion of content relevant to males in health classes is a necessary endeavor, particularly given the experiences expressed by these participants.

Beyond Physique. Specific areas of concern beyond one's overall physique also emerged. Hair loss was a source of concern for six of the eleven participants. As Allan indicated, "When you're bald, the whole world knows you're bald." Many were conscious of family members who had experienced hair loss and the likelihood that they, too, may lose their hair in the future. For Brandon, hair loss was particularly distressing. "I check [it] out in the mirror and measure it once in a while; it's very, it's almost obsessive." This participant, as well as others, associated the loss of hair with a loss of virility and attractiveness. Hair loss was also a sign of getting older. Indeed, youthfulness and virility are often associated with a full head of hair (Luciano, 2001). With the popularity of hair transplants and hair growth options, hair loss is also a relevant area for researchers to examine when investigating body image concerns in males.

Another source of concern for several of the participants was the issue of penis size. For three of the four men who mentioned this, a lack of size was viewed as an inadequacy as it pertained to sexually satisfying women. Penis size was also viewed as a demonstration of one's masculinity. As noted by Brandon, "Penis size is ... what makes a man ... a center of the masculinity." Although several men brought up hair loss and penis size on their own, it is not known if more would have discussed these issues if they were directly raised as a topic of discussion. In fact, one participant expressed surprise that penis size was not a direct question in the interview. It was not our intent, however, to impose sensitive topics of discussion on the men. Rather, participants were invited to address any additional issues not specifically raised in the interviews, thereby reducing the amount of discomfort they may have experienced had the topic been raised by the interviewer. The overall comfort level of the participants during the interviews was a relevant issue and will be elaborated upon next.

CROSS-GENDER INTERVIEWING

Many of the men discussed the topic of male body image as it pertained to prevalence and their comfort level when discussing male body image issues in the initial interview. Alan commented,

   Most, I think most of my friends would not be comfortable speaking
   about something like that [ideal physique] because they would
   [be] emasculated or it would sort of threaten their own sexual
   identity.... They want to let themselves believe that only women,
   you know, have that, that sort of dilemma, you know, which is
   very false.

Olivardia, Pope, Mangweth, and Hudson (1995) in their study on eating disorders in men also noted the reluctance of men to discuss body image-related concerns. Similarly to the sentiment expressed in the above quotation, the men in their study expressed embarrassment over what was believed to be a feminine preoccupation.

The disinclination of men to share body image--related concerns with anyone, and in particular a female interviewer, was anticipated. Participants were therefore given the option of being interviewed by a male interviewer, if they felt uncomfortable with a female. Surprisingly, none of the participants requested a male interviewer, thus provoking a secondary purpose to the study: to examine why a male interviewer was not requested and to address the participant's comfort level with a female interviewer. This was addressed in a follow-up interview during which four of the participants expressed that they felt equally comfortable with a male or a female, stating that they preferred to talk to the person who was conducting the research. Three preferred a female interviewer and expressed their reluctance to discuss male body image issues with another male, as it would be viewed as demasculinizing and potentially embarrassing. In Evan's words,

   I would have known that he wouldn't have laughed at me like
   right there in my face, but I don't know, there's still that fear
   there, so it makes for uneasiness. I don't know, people just have
   that image of women as being more emotionally supportive. So
   when you talk about a very sensitive issue, I do and many other
   guys do feel more comfortable with women.

Another participant commented that he would not have been as open with a male interviewer and would have provided slightly modified answers. One participant also commented that he would feel the need to be more descriptive with an interviewer of the opposite sex. He believed that a male interviewer would already have an understanding of male issues, and detail, on his part, would be unnecessary. Indeed, qualitative researchers have pointed to the benefit of cross-gender interviewing in this regard (Rubin & Rubin, 1995). Although some have pointed to the challenges females face when interviewing males (Arendell, 1997), it appears as if the presence of a female interviewer was beneficial in this study. Although speculative and in need of further examination, female interviewers may be viewed as less threatening and therefore as providing an atmosphere where males may be more forthright about actual beliefs and experiences pertaining to male body image--related concerns. Finally, it is important to note that one participant revealed in his follow-up interview that he was gay. He therefore preferred a female interviewer in the event that he disclosed information pertaining to his sexuality during the interview. This also points to the importance of cross-gender interviewing when investigating male body image.

LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS

As is inherent in all research, this study had a number of limitations. One such limitation is the potential reluctance of participants to reveal sensitive information. As noted earlier, however, the presence of a female interviewer may have helped reduce the magnitude of these concerns for the participants. Furthermore, males who had serious distress may have been reluctant to address their concerns and therefore did not participate in the study. Nevertheless, the issue of cross-gender interviewing is one that deserves further probing when investigating body image concerns in male samples.

Another limitation with respect to the sample concerns generalizing the results. Given the small sample size and the exploratory nature of the study, caution is advised when applying these results to other age groups and cultures. Future research directions stemming from the results reported here, however, may include further examination of the behaviors that accompany body dissatisfaction. More specifically, an interesting finding was that methods for gaining size were joined with weight loss methods. Emphasis in the research on males has been on weight gain. Both muscle gain and fat loss, however, are indicative of the muscular and lean characteristics of the mesomorphic body type. In addition to body change behaviors associated with gaining size or losing weight, appearance and avoidance behaviors, in particular, may be important topics of examination. Indeed, body image behaviors are not altogether understood (Cash & Pruzinsky, 2002).

The behaviors that may accompany body dissatisfaction are particularly important to consider when examining the appropriateness of existing body image and disordered eating scales in male samples. In fact, the lack of research on male body image in the past may be attributed to a lack of adequate tools to measure male body image (Edwards & Launder, 2000). Although recent scales have been developed to examine attitudes and behaviors related to gaining muscularity (e.g. Edwards & Launder, 2000; McCreary & Sasse, 2000), measures that incorporate behaviors related to weight loss, avoidance, and appearance should also be developed so that assessments in this area encompass all relevant behaviors associated with a desired body type for males, a long-term objective of this research. Finally, future avenues for research and tool development may include motivations as well as attitudes and behaviors related to penis size and hair loss, topics that were not specifically addressed by the interviewer yet emerged as salient areas for investigation in male samples. The construction of appropriate tools could better our understanding of male body image as well as assist in theoretical development of the field of study.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

This exploratory qualitative study sought to provide insight into male body image perceptions of the ideal physique, motivations, and related behaviors. The majority of the men expressed a desire to gain muscle and/or lose weight to obtain their desired physique and reported relatively safe methods in this vein. Although avoidance and unhealthy behaviors as well as distress related to body shape did not go unreported, many of the participants expressed a current acceptance of their bodies. The perceived motivations and influences underlying the desire for some to attain a body type that differed from their current one, as well as concerns beyond overall physique such as penis size and hair loss, serve to underscore the relevance and importance of ongoing research in this area. Moreover, given the reluctance of some to discuss body image and the potential internalization of concerns resulting from the belief that body image concerns are solely a female preoccupation, male body image could be acknowledged on a broader level in the form of health-related content in schools. The inclusion of content relevant to the male position may serve to increase overall awareness and thus illuminate male body image issues for those males who may feel their concerns are unique. Finally, researchers should consider the sex of the interviewer when investigating male body image through a qualitative approach. Accurate information on male body image is particularly important to our overall understanding, treatment, and education of male body image, as well as to the development of new measures in this vein.

The authors would like to acknowledge Judy King and Michael Bottamini for their insight and assistance with various components of the study. We would also like to thank Diane Culver for her comments and suggestions on a first draft of this paper, as well as the participants for their willingness to share their experiences and for their interest in the study.

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Gina Bottamini and Diane M. Ste-Marie

University of Ottawa

Ottawa, Ontario, Canada

NOTES

(1.) Participants were recruited from a bilingual university. Although both Anglophone and Francophone students participated, all interviews were conducted in English.

(2.) The Atkins diet, developed by the late Robert C. Atkins, is a low carbohydrate diet.

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to: Diane M. Ste-Marie, School of Human Kinetics, University of Ottawa, 125 University Street, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada KIN 6N5. Electronic mail: [e-mail].

Table 1
The Number of Participants Engaged in Exercise
Forms and Frequency of Exercise Participation

                      Days per Week     Length of Time (minutes)

                                        [less than or
Type                  1-2   3-5   6-7   equal to] 15    30   60   90

Cardiovascular         6     4     0          2         3    4    1
Resistance training    4     4     1          0         1    8    0

Table 2
Frequency of Male Figure Drawing (MFD) Selections for What the
Participants Believed Mates, Friends, and the Media to Be Ideal
as Well as What They Themselves Desired

                    Image Selections

MFD        Mates    Friends    Media    Desired

1            0         0         0         0
2            0         0         0         0
3            0         0         0         0
4            0         0         0         0
4.5          0         0         0         1
5            1         2         0         1
5.5          1         1         0         0
6            2         0         2         4
6.5          1         1         5         1
7            5         2         1         3
7.5          0         1         2         0
8            0         0         0         0
8.5          0         1         1         0
9            0         1         0         0