Making the social visible within inclusive classrooms.

Abstract. There is an increasing need to address children's social development in the midst of academic initiatives for early childhood curricula. A study was conducted to make visible and support children's social interactions within inclusive preschool classrooms through documentation from the Reggio Emilia approach. Findings demonstrated that children's interactions occurred among different configurations within inclusive preschool classrooms, involving: 1) children who were typically developing, 2) children who had certified disabilities, and 3) children who were typically developing and those having certified disabilities. These social interactions occurred within three areas of the classroom context: transitions between routine activities, open-ended activities, and teachers' roles. Implications suggest that documentation techniques can serve as both a research and teaching tool for promoting social interactions among early childhood educators.

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It is not unusual to walk into an early childhood classroom and immediately look for evidence of the children's academic performance. One may look for examples of children's writing, mathematic, or reading skills hung on the walls, or observe how children are engaged in a specific academic task. Academic performance is closely associated with "school readiness," a topic at the forefront of the minds of early childhood educators, families of young children, and policymakers. Much of the general curriculum in preschools and kindergartens emphasizes academic skills in literacy and mathematics as well as other cognitive areas. In addition, children with disabilities often have goals in their individual education plans (IEPs) that reflect academic skills (Guralnick, 2001b).

Given this focus on academic performance, children's social development appears to be hidden or forgotten in the classroom environment (Zins, Weissberg, Wang, & Walberg, 2004). In fact, children who are observed as not being "attentive" to academic tasks may be perceived as "not learning"; or, some may attribute such behavior to the teacher's inability to manage. Although children's social development may have a low profile in classrooms, the benefits of promoting this domain are widely recognized. Children who can learn to interact with adults and other children in a positive manner will develop appropriate negotiating skills in times of conflict; have a sense of belonging and acceptance; and establish attitudes, values, and skills essential for a satisfying life. These benefits not only are important for their learning in schools but also extend into their communities (Forest, 1990; Resnick, 1990).

Researchers have found that inclusive classrooms of both children with disabilities and their typically developing peers can provide opportunities for all children to develop positive social relationships. For example, inclusive preschool classrooms expand the social network of children, especially children with disabilities, beyond their family members, neighbors, and peer group. Lewis, Feiring, and Brooks-Gunn (1988) found in a longitudinal study of 75 mothers of children with disabilities, ages 3 to 6, and a matched sample of typically developing peers, that the child's disabling condition played a much greater role in the social network composition than did his/her chronological age. On a daily basis, children with disabilities had more contact with adults than with peers, while their typically developing peers had more contact with children their own age than with adults (Lewis et al., 1988). The medical and educational needs of children with disabilities require the involvement of more adults in their care. Furthermore, segregation and stigmatization may prevent peer contact and, in turn, hinder a child's opportunity to have positive peer role models in his daily contacts. Odom and Bailey (2001) further document positive social outcomes of children within inclusive classrooms by demonstrating that children with disabilities participate in more social interactions with peers and exhibit more cognitively mature forms of play when they are in classrooms with typically developing peers than when they are in segregated classrooms.

Typically developing children also benefit from inclusive classrooms in terms of their gains in tolerance, compassion, and an overall understanding of the strengths and needs of children with disabilities (Stainback & Stainback, 1990; Willis, 1994). Siblings of children with disabilities often make vocational choices in the "helping" professions, such as teaching and health services, because of their childhood experiences caring for a sibling with multiple needs (Cleveland & Miller, 1977; Meyer & Vadasy, 1994).

In spite of these benefits, physically placing children with differing developmental levels does not guarantee that all children will develop positive social relationships. As a group, children with disabilities have a unique pattern of difficulties in developing social competence that is not prevalent with children who are typically developing (Guralnick, 2001a).

Many programs and interventions have been developed with the hope of promoting social skills among children with disabilities. However, Guralnick (2001b) states that most of these interventions and programs may have only short-term positive outcomes and fail to generalize to other settings and contexts. These interventions are often disconnected from the naturally occurring classroom opportunities that allow for social interaction. Furthermore, those who implement them often make assumptions about children in general, without understanding the individual child/children within a given setting. Guralnick calls for making fundamental changes in addressing the social competence of children with disabilities and increasing awareness of the importance of this aspect of children's development (2001b).

Early childhood educators must not only acknowledge the importance of promoting young children's cognitive development but also recognize the importance of addressing the "whole child" (e.g., the child's sensorimotor, communication, social, and emotional areas). All areas are closely related, and one domain is influenced by development in other domains. This view has been advocated by a number of groups, including the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) (Bredekamp & Copple, 1997). This study is consistent with the NAEYC principles as well as those of the Reggio Emilia approach. In the Reggio Emilia approach, relationships among children, staff, and families promote teaching and learning by providing an increased understanding of families' cultures, values, and priorities, in addition to the children's interests and all domains of their current developmental levels (Edwards, Gandini, & Forman, 1998). All children are perceived as developing social relationships within their natural settings (i.e., settings familiar to children, such as homes, child care settings, inclusive classrooms, and community settings). Inclusive classrooms, through their physical and social ecology, can support children's social interactions as well as their cognitive performance. Physical ecology is defined by the static characteristics of the classroom (Carta, Sainato, & Greenwood, 1988) and social ecology is defined by the interactions between adults and children and between peers, and by the characteristics of the adults or children that affect those interactions (Odom & Bailey, 2001). Both the physical and social ecology of classrooms have an impact on the successful inclusion of students with disabilities, particularly on the development of positive peer relationships (Grenot-Scheyer, Meyer, & Park, 1993).

Purpose of Study

This study seeks to communicate the importance of social relationships within inclusive classrooms by documenting how social interactions between children who have disabilities and their typically developing peers are supported within the ecological context of the preschool classroom. A broad research question framed this study: What is the nature of social interactions in the classroom? Three other questions followed: 1) What kinds of social interactions are occurring in a preschool inclusive curriculum? 2) Under what conditions are positive interactions among children occurring within a preschool inclusive curriculum? and 3) How can documentation be used as a tool to make visible the social interactions of children with disabilities and their typically developing peers?

Several purposes for the study directed the research questions. First, it is important for teacher educators to better understand how to aid both preservice and inservice teachers in Pre-K-3rd grades in supporting social interactions among children as well as helping all children develop to their maximum potential. Second, given that the researchers' university's teacher education program is influenced from a sociocultural perspective, it was important to better understand the contextual features of classrooms that were promoting the social interactions of children who were not only at varying developmental levels, but also from diverse socioeconomic and cultural backgrounds. A third purpose addresses the use of documentation as a teaching tool for preservice and inservice teachers. As part of the Reggio Emilia approach, documentation is defined as a broad range of concrete traces (e.g., video/audiotape recordings, written notes, photographs, children's products, and lesson plans) used during an experience to make teaching decisions, as well as after the experience as assessment and communication tools (Rinaldi, 1998). Documentation involves interpretations of children's learning experiences from varying developmental levels. For example, early childhood special education programs have used documentation as a means for assessing and recording student progress toward IEP goals (Cooney & Buchanan, 2001). Donovan and Sutter (2004) demonstrated how documentation prompted changes in teacher strategies and student performance in an elementary school. Implementing this type of observation provides an opportunity to "visibly see" what is occurring in the classroom that might not be observed through other means. Our study builds on the uses of documentation by exploring this approach, both as an educational tool to help teachers better understand how to support children's social interactions and as a research tool to better understand the contextual features of a preschool curriculum that supports these interactions.

Context

The study was conducted at an early childhood center located in a midwestern state. The center is part of an extensive, unique partnership combining numerous agencies--local, county, and state education, as well as medical, social service, and mental health agencies--to address the needs of the community's young children (from birth to kindergarten age) and their families. For approximately 20 years, participants from these agencies have been collaborating to deliver innovative services, continuing professional development and preservice teacher education, ongoing program evaluation, and research. All classrooms are considered inclusive, whereby children with disabilities receive education services and needed resources to learn alongside their typically developing peers. Supportive services for all classrooms include vision specialists, audiologists, psychologists, social workers, behavior management staff, a nurse, a dentist, speech and language pathologists, occupational and physical therapists, adaptive physical educators, art studio teachers, and parent support staff. There is not only a blending of the general and special education systems in the classrooms but also a blending of resources, personnel, and budgets on the administrative level. The center is influenced by the Reggio Emilia approach, in which each child is perceived as a "unique individual with developmental, family and cultural histories that shape his or her approach to learning" (Franklin County Board of Mental Retardation and Development Disabilities [MR/DD], 2004, p. 7). Daily curriculum planning is organized around significant issues, problems, and interests, collaboratively identified by teachers, staff, and children. The curriculum also reflects appropriate expectations for subject matter learning in the disciplines of literacy, mathematics, science, and social studies.

Classrooms

Two classrooms ("The Sunflowers" and "The Daffodils") were selected for the study, based on their calendar program and classroom composition. Their calendar year began in August and data collection occurred during the spring and extended into the summer sessions. The study began in the spring with the assumption that children would be familiar with the classroom routine, teachers, and classmates by this time in their program. These classrooms were selected because they were composed of typically developing children and children with disabilities; some of the children's disabilities were identifiable according to their physical features or behaviors. The authors believed that classrooms consisting of several children with disabilities would provide more opportunities to document social interactions, and would more easily highlight salient features of the curriculum that were supporting these interactions. Parents signed consent forms allowing their children to participate in the study.

"The Sunflowers" Classroom. A total of 16 children were enrolled in "The Sunflowers," which operated five days per week for 10 months out of the year. Ten of the children were typically developing and from families of low socioeconomic status. Six of the children had certified disabilities represented in their IEPs. Their disabilities included cerebral palsy, traumatic brain injury, social-emotional concerns, speech and language delays, and autistic-like characteristics.

A Head Start program and the Franklin County Board of MR/DD jointly administer this classroom, with a full-time lead teacher and assistant teacher representing each of the programs in the classroom (refer to Table 1 for teacher qualifications). Head Start was the first federal program in the United States designed to provide comprehensive services to young children and their families in an effort to facilitate children's entry into regular school programs. In addition, Head Start programs have a history of serving children with disabilities by reserving 10 percent of their enrollment for children who need special education or related services (Zigler & Valentine, 1979).

"The Daffodils" Classroom. A total of 15 children were enrolled in "The Daffodils" classroom, which operated five days a week throughout the entire year, providing before- and after-school care. Eleven children were typically developing, and four children had certified disabilities. One child was diagnosed with autism and used an augmentative communication system (i.e., any mode of communication other than speech), and the other children's disabilities included social emotional concerns and speech and language delays.

"The Daffodils" is part of a child care program administered by the Young Women's Christian Association (YWCA). The children meet low-income and extended care eligibility requirements set by the YWCA administration. In the United States, the YWCA has a history of working with other organizations since the latter part of the 19th century at the national and state levels to address affordable housing and quality child care for low-income working mothers. Each classroom has a lead teacher and an assistant teacher who are in the classroom full time throughout the week (refer to Table for teacher qualifications).

A summary of these two classrooms illustrates the similarities and differences between them. Both classrooms are inclusive classrooms with preschool-age (4- to 5-year-old) children who are typically developing and some who have certified disabilities. Children with certified disabilities receive specialized designed instruction and/or related services as part of their IEPs (Individuals With Disabilities Education Act of 1990). Aside from these general similarities, the two classrooms are very different, according to: 1) classroom structure and organization; 2) activities and materials; 3) child composition, including the children's special education needs and the type and delivery of special education services; 4) teachers' formal training, including the number of teachers and their teaching strategies; and 5) the curriculum goals of the classrooms. These differences are supported by Dunkin and Biddle (1974), who conceptualized the classroom as a system consisting of events that are influenced by presage variables (e.g., teacher preparation programs, their formative experiences, and personality) and context variables (e.g., children's backgrounds and abilities as well as the school, community, and classroom contexts). These events presume a relationship that influences product variables--in other words, both immediate and long-term child outcomes. The authors, in noting the differences, decided that studying two inclusive classrooms was important to understanding the findings of positive social interactions across a variety of classroom processes, but not for comparison purposes.

Data Collection and Analysis

An ethnographic perspective was used to identify children's social interactions within inclusive classrooms and better understand how these interactions are supported within the context of a preschool classroom. From this perspective, the classroom was perceived as a culture in which a group of people construct common knowledge, language, and patterned ways of engaging with each other through moment-by-moment interactions (Green & Meyer, 1991). The researchers' initial decisions were influenced by the conceptual framework they developed from reviews of literature and their own experiences with preschool inclusive classrooms. Using an ethnographic perspective did not limit their observations. Throughout the study, the researchers reworked concepts, processes, and phenomena to develop new understandings about the situated nature of the daily life of these two preschool inclusive classrooms (Zaharlick & Green, 2003). The researchers acted as participant observers and began with a grand tour of the research setting, where they first familiarized themselves with the center, the staff, and various activities of each of the two classrooms and later actively engaged in the curriculum by interacting with the children and teachers and assisting with their activities. Through this logic of inquiry approach, the researchers identified the "actors" with whom they interacted, and determined when, where, and under what conditions positive social interactions were occurring (Spradley, 1980).

In the beginning, the teachers may have been influenced by the researchers' roles. For example, teachers questioned the researchers about their implementation of inclusive practices, asking such questions as, "Are we doing this (i.e., inclusion) right?" and "Do you want me to arrange specific interactions of children?" Eventually, the researchers gained access to the classroom culture by becoming a natural part of the setting through prolonged engagement in the classrooms, and they built trust with the students and teachers by interacting with the children and assisting the teachers with classroom activities (Zaharlick & Green, 2003).

To address the research questions, data was collected over a period of approximately two months, first in "The Sunflowers" and later in "The Daffodils" classrooms, primarily through 1) field notes, 2) short and long interviews with classroom teachers and other staff who provided services to the classrooms, and 3) digital photographs taken during the classroom activities. Observations occurred during morning activities through lunch, totaling approximately 70 hours (35 hours in each classroom). The morning time period was selected because its schedule involved more structured activities and children appeared to be more attentive, whereas the afternoons consisted of naptime and unstructured activities; plus, the children began to leave during the mid-afternoon.

After the initial inquiry phase, data collection focused on documenting children's positive social interactions with other children. Interactions among all children were included, not just those between children with disabilities and their typically developing peers, in order to reflect the idea that all of the children were members of the classroom community. Interactions were defined as those interactions between two or more children who were communicating with each other verbally or nonverbally in a manner that was considered "socially appropriate," according to the norms of the classroom. Examples included actions considered prosocial, such as social exchanges and acknowledging the other as a "friend."

Documentation also involves teachers reflecting on and interpreting the processes of teaching and learning. To incorporate this aspect of documentation, the researchers conducted long interviews (individually and in small groups) with classroom teachers towards the end of each classroom's observational component. During these interviews, the researchers presented digital photographs, along with field notes of specific social interaction events among the children. Teachers were interviewed according to their interpretations of these events, including their reflections about characteristics of these children and their previous interactions with others in the classroom.

The two researchers believed it was important to coordinate their timing and data collection techniques. They individually observed in the classrooms to provide ample opportunities for the children and teachers to become familiar with each of them and to avoid the presence of too many adults in the classroom at any given time. The researchers coordinated data collection techniques by continually discussing the data to ensure documentation of events based upon shared definitions of children's social interactions, and to further their understanding of the culture of these classrooms. In summary, triangulation of data sources, member checks, peer debriefing, and prolonged engagement were used to increase the credibility of this study (Guba & Lincoln, 1989).

The social interactions were analyzed using a sorting technique involving smaller categories within larger categories (cover terms) and patterns derived from the larger cover terms (Patton, 1990). The children's social interactions were coded as to the following categories: 1) the configurations of children; 2) the nature of the event, including the site and aspect of the curriculum; and 3) the teachers' roles during these interactions. Three major patterns were further derived from the categories: open-ended events, transitions between classroom routines, and teachers' roles. Table 2 represents the events analyzed in "The Sunflowers" classroom, and Table 3 represents the events analyzed in "The Daffodils" classroom. In each table, the first two patterns (open-ended activities and transitions between classroom routines) are represented in the first column as aspects of the curriculum. The third pattern (teacher roles) is embedded within each table in the last column, since all the events were analyzed according to the teachers' behaviors. Included in both tables are the social interaction events, which are analyzed according to site, frequency, and nature of the children's interactions.

Findings

A total of 138 positive social interaction events were documented in both classrooms, with 72 events being documented in "The Daffodils" classroom and 66 events being documented in "The Sunflowers" classroom. The findings are presented according to a broad question ("What is the nature of social interactions in preschool inclusive classrooms?"), accompanied by each of the sub questions. Data analysis from the first question ("What do social interactions look like among children in a preschool inclusive curriculum?") addressed the composition of the social interactions and actions among the children within these interactions.

Children's interactions occurred among different configurations of children, involving categories of children who were: 1) typically developing, 2) having certified disabilities, and 3) both typically developing and having certified disabilities. These interactions involved at least two children communicating to each other through gestures or verbally. Examples of gestures involved one child exhibiting a behavior (or set of behaviors) for another or doing something for another child (e.g., holding each other's hands, helping a child eat, or reading a book with another child). Verbal interactions focused on children talking to each other during an activity or children making references about other children.

The second question ("Under what conditions are positive interactions among children occurring within a preschool inclusive curriculum?") addressed the conditions in which interactions were occurring and are analyzed according to the nature of the event. For example, certain aspects of the curriculum promote positive social interaction, such as outside free play--a larger category that included smaller categories such as bike riding, climbers, sandbox, swings, open area, and organized activities. The following vignettes illustrate the three patterns--open-ended events, transitions between classroom routines, and teachers' roles. Descriptions of children are provided within the vignettes to give a better understanding of the social interactions.

Open-Ended Activities

Many early childhood programs include open-ended opportunities within their curriculum, as recommended in developmentally appropriate practice (Bredekamp & Copple, 1997). Through our documentation, it became evident that many social interactions were occurring during daily activities that provided open-ended activities within them, such as a circle time/morning meeting, project work, or such open-ended time periods as free play or an outdoor time. Free play, both indoors and outdoors, prompted many social interactions within both classrooms. During indoor free play, social interactions occurred within the block area; at table areas, where children initiated ideas, such as writing in journals; in the dramatic play area; within the context of project work during small-group work; and during work time in the art studio.

The children in each classroom also engaged in various activities on the playground. While social interactions occurred in many contexts on the playground, they did so most frequently on the swings and in the sandbox. The following vignette, involving Amy and Hannah, illustrates how play on the swings can lead to more than a simple interaction in which one child pushes another child.

Learning to Flip. Amy and Hannah are frequent playmates. Amy is very social and well-liked by both peers and adults. She is tall for her age and has strengths in gross motor activities. She easily engages in new activities. She receives special education services related to speech and emotional concerns. According to her teachers, Amy is very good at swinging. Conversely, Hannah, a typically developing peer, has encountered some challenges learning to swing and usually takes on the role of "pusher."

One day, Amy and Hannah were the only two children who gravitated toward the swings. Amy and Hannah both decided to sit on the swings. Amy began to do a flip, where she would turn her body all the way over the seat of the swing. Hannah observed Amy doing this and also attempted to do the flip; however, Hannah was not able to achieve the flip. Amy told Hannah to watch her and showed her how she did the flip. Hannah tried, leaned back, and tried really hard to do the flip. Amy showed her again. After another attempt, Hannah still did not make it all the way around. Then, Amy got off of her swing and physically placed Hannah on the swing and moved her through the motions. Hannah smiled, as she was able to do the flip with Amy's assistance; Amy smiled back after being able to help Hannah do the flip.

This vignette illustrates the strengths of all children and how strengths can be highlighted through documentation. Amy, a child receiving special education services, was able to teach Hannah, a typically developing child, how to do a flip on the swing, because this was one of her areas of strength.

Transition Between Classroom Routines

Every classroom has events that are conducted on a predictable or regular basis. These events make up the schedule, practices, and differences in the everyday contexts of classrooms. Both classrooms had similar daily routines that included eating activities (e.g., breakfast, lunch, and snacks), hygiene activities (e.g., toileting, hand washing, and teeth brushing), circle time or morning meeting, small-group work involving projects, and times for indoor and outdoor play. The children must transition between these routine activities. These transition times were the impetus for many of the social interactions observed. The following vignette describes an example of the type of social interactions observed during these transitions times.

Buddies. In "The Daffodils" classroom, when the children traveled from their classroom to other areas of the school (e.g., a large motor space, or to the outdoor area), they always did so with a "buddy" (i.e., another classmate). The buddies were responsible for not only helping each other physically from the classroom to the next area, but also for acting in a socially appropriate manner. For example, they held hands to walk to the next area, kept their voices quiet, and walked along one side of the hall. Of particular interest is Shelby's participation in this routine activity.

Shelby loves music and often carries around a toy that plays musical tunes. Also, she is interested in the computer and frequently listens to the different sounds of certain programs. She exhibits many autistic features and sometimes "body rocks" when she is upset. Her primary mode of communication is through facial expressions and gestures. Shelby uses pictorial symbols on a communication board to communicate her feelings and desires. In addition, she has a picture system located on one of the classroom walls to help organize her daily schedule. Shelby, although seemingly resistant to many direct forms of contact from other children and teachers, participates in the routine buddy activity by eventually holding the hand of a buddy and walking to the next activity. Typically, this activity begins when one of the teachers calls to the children to line up with their buddies to go outside. All the children, except Shelby, line up and hold another child's hand. The teacher calls Shelby to come to the door to go outside. Shelby looks over to the other children, squeals, and then looks away. The teacher calls Shelby, again. She walks towards the group. The teacher tells Shelby to hold Jamal's hand; Jamal drops the hand of another child and extends his hand to Shelby. Shelby proceeds to run around the classroom. The teacher calls Shelby again to come and hold Jamal's hand so they can go outside. Then, Shelby walks toward the group. The teacher again prompts Shelby to hold Jamal's hand, which she does, and they all walk outside. This scenario takes about 8 minutes. According to the teachers, Shelby will hold the hand of Jamal or one of the teachers. Jamal is one of the few children in the class who interacts with Shelby. (From the authors' field notes of June 11th: We observed Jamal playing in the water table opposite Shelby and picking up items to give to her that fell from the water table.) The other children appear to handle the wait time with little, if any, talking, which indicates their perception of Shelby's behavior as a pattern that signals the start of the next activity.

Teachers' Roles

In the documented events, teachers positioned themselves in a manner to support children's interactions in several ways. First, the teachers provided a context in which these events could occur. For example, the open-ended activities involved teachers arranging materials so that several children had opportunities to engage with them (e.g., teachers made playdough and placed it on a table for a group of children). Second, the teachers directed children's involvement in other activities so that the children could interact with each other while transitioning to another activity. This role was exhibited in the "Buddies" activity, in which the teachers directed the children to hold another child's hand as they were going outside or to another place in the building. Another example included teachers directing children who had finished their breakfast to read books while the other children finished. Third, the teachers redirected an activity into more socially appropriate activities according to the classroom norms (e.g., while on the playground, some children started to argue, and so one of the teachers redirected their attention by starting a game of duck-duck-goose). In these examples, teachers created opportunities for children to interact--for example, by initiating a game or posing questions to the children that would help include specific children in a particular context. After these contexts were created and children were brought together, the teachers positioned themselves outside of the children's play and monitored the context, thereby providing greater opportunities for the children to interact. Teachers' roles in inclusive classrooms have been a focus of research (Buysse, Goldman, & Skinner, 2003). Teachers plan and determine the curriculum based on their program and philosophy, their theoretical perspectives and influences, and, most important, their personal understanding of the children and the social context of their classroom. Teachers' roles and knowledge of their students were very important to the facilitation of social interactions. These types of teaching strategies are demonstrated in the ecology of inclusive classrooms defined as approach and interaction (McWilliam, de Kruif, & Zulli, 2002). In the approach context, teachers make decisions regarding when, where, and why specific interactions will occur; whereas in the interaction context, the teacher makes decisions in order to continue the interaction.

Documentation As a Tool To Make the "Social" Visible

The third question was "How can documentation be used as a tool to make visible the social interactions of children with disabilities and their typically developing peers?" According to Goldhaber and Smith (2002), documentation involves

collecting, organizing, interpreting and sharing traces of children's efforts to understand their social and physical worlds in order to: promote teacher inquiry and reflection; address and/or provoke children's theories, questions, interests, and concerns; build a community of learners among children; nurture relationships among children and children, children and adults, adults and adults; and to advocate for children as competent, and worthy of our attention, care, and respect. (p. 148)

Teachers in "The Sunflowers" classroom had some previous experiences making documentation panels that highlighted children's learning around specific project themes conducted within the curriculum, but they hadn't used this approach for reflecting on specific aspects of children's social development. The teachers in "The Daffodils" classroom attended several workshops on the Reggio Emilia approach and had viewed documentation panels within the building.

Although the teachers did not demonstrate all of the characteristics of documentation outlined by Goldhaber and Smith (2002), there was evidence of documentation techniques implemented within this study that served both a research and a teaching purpose, based on how the teachers followed up with the researchers' picture-taking and recording of children's social interactions as well as their behavior during the interviews. For example, the teachers responded to the pictures and the accompanying scenarios of children's social interactions presented by the researchers in several ways. First, they appeared to be aware of specific children who interacted with each other, but they were also surprised to see configurations of social interactions by children not previously observed. Second, several teachers started replicating the researchers' actions when they weren't present (e.g., teachers taking pictures or verbally relating events of similar social interactions during the researchers' absence). Third, the documentation process promoted teacher interpretation regarding specific children's development as well as their curriculum. Teachers assessed aspects of children's development by analyzing the various roles they performed, different types of interactions that occurred between the children, specific skill development, use of materials and equipment, and other children's actions that represented modeling of teachers' strategies. The process of the researchers sharing their traces and interpretations, together with the teachers' interpretations, helped make visible to the teachers the children's social interactions within transitions during classroom routines and open-ended activities.

Discussion

This study explores several aspects of inclusive practices in preschool classrooms that include both children with and without disabilities. The findings highlighted children's social interactions and under what conditions these interactions occurred. In both classrooms, children's social interactions occurred among different configurations of children and primarily during transition times and open-ended activities.

This study has several implications for both teacher education and research. It demonstrates the vital role that teachers can play in supporting children's social interactions in their classroom. They can structure transition activities within their daily routines and provide opportunities, such as open-ended activities and specific centers, to promote these relationships. However, before they design curriculum in this fashion, they need to perceive the importance of promoting children's social skills and then structure a curriculum that will support children's social interactions in a manner that is conducive to their particular classrooms.

Documentation is an important teaching tool for informing preservice and inservice teachers about the importance of children's social interactions as well as how to adapt the classroom to address children's social interactions. Teacher educators often struggle with providing theoretical constructs of inclusive education, as well as directly providing preservice and inservice teachers with inclusive experiences in classrooms. Authentic pictures of children's social interactions within classrooms can be a valuable teaching tool to help make visible the importance of promoting children's social emotional development, as well as how to make accommodations for these interactions within the curriculum. Second, the reflective nature of documentation can enhance teachers' understandings of their children as well as make visible the importance of children's social interactions. Teachers are extremely occupied in their classrooms with daily activities and meeting the immediate demands of a curriculum that involves addressing IEP goals and academic expectations. The act of reflecting on a specific aspect of the classroom allows teachers to think about their attitudes, beliefs, and assumptions concerning a particular aspect of their teaching, and use reflection to foster self-evaluation and possible change. Through reflection, new understandings may emerge that will help teachers improve their inclusive practices. Table 4 (Documenting Children's Social Interactions) suggests ways that teachers can engage in the process of documentation. Although the researchers were not able to follow the classroom after the final interviews in order to observe changes in teachers' observations, beliefs, or strategies, the data suggest that the teachers reflected on the children's social interactions. The directions that future research may take include the use of documentation through a longer period of time, so that it includes multiple opportunities for teachers to reflect on documentation, together with follow-up observations of whether or not they make changes to enhance the children's social interactions based on these experiences.

This description of documentation guided this study and the researchers' own process of collection, interpretation, and reflection. Thus, documentation was addressed from the purpose of "teacher inquiry and reflection" and to advocate for an image of all children as socially competent. Furthermore, assessing children through documentation provides the opportunity of capturing quality and making children's learning and competencies visible holistically, as opposed to traditional assessment methods that primarily focus on cognition or learning events as separate or disjointed.

Documentation can make visible the power of children to articulate the capabilities of other children and the social relationships that may be overlooked by adults. Debbie, a teacher in "The Sunflowers" classroom, shares the following episode: As she thinks about writing her year-end report about Devin, she asks one of the other classroom children, Michael, for some information: "What do you think of Devin?" Michael responds matter-of-factly, "He's my best friend." Debbie asks, "How do you know, [since] he can't talk?" He responds, "He screams and I go help him." Through this story, Debbie reveals how teachers have the capacity to make social interactions visible through documentation, and how documentation demonstrates the power and capabilities of children.

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Laurie Katz 

Jeanne Galbraith

The Ohio State University 

Table 1
Teacher Qualifications

                       Educational Background   Teaching Experience

The Sunflowers

Lead Teacher MR/DD     B.A. Early Childhood     4 years teaching in
                       Education                inclusive classrooms,
                       M.A. Early Childhood     both parents work for
                       Special Education        MR/DD, exposed to
                       PreK-Grade 3 Early       people with
                       Childhood Licensure      disabilities
                       PreK-Grade 1 Special     throughout her life
                       Education Licensure

Assistant Teacher      High School Diploma      20 years' experience
MR/DD                                           with young children,
                                                including inclusive
                                                classrooms, has a
                                                daughter with special
                                                needs

Lead Head Start        B.A. Business            8 years' experience in
Teacher                Administration           family and center-
                                                based child care, 1st
                                                year working in an
                                                inclusive classroom

Assistant Head Start   High School Diploma      3 years' experience in
Teacher                Several years of         this classroom
                       undergraduate courses

The Daffodils

Lead Teacher           High School Diploma      30 years' experience
                                                with young children,
                                                including 25 years
                                                with children with
                                                special needs

Assistant Teacher      High School Diploma      4 years' experience
                                                with both typically
                                                developing children
                                                and children with
                                                special needs

Table 2
Social Interactions--"The Sunflowers"

Aspect of the      Site of                     Number of
 Curriculum:       Social                       Social
  Open-Ended     Interaction                 Interactions
  Activities                                   Observed
  (Pattern)

Inside Free      Carpet Area                 7
Play
                 Computer                    1

                 Hall/Modified               1
                 Block Area

                 Housekeeping                10

                 Writing                     3
                 Center

                 Other                       4

Structured       Art                         1
Activities
                 Meeting Time                2

                 Music/Dance                 5

                 Project Work                3

Meals            Breakfast                   2

                 Lunch                       2

Outside Free     Bikes                       4
Play
                 Climbers                    2

                 Organized                   2
                 Activities

                 Open Area                   4
                 (grass/black-
                 top)

                 Sandbox                     7

                 Swings                      4

Aspect of the    Site of                     Number of
 Curriculum:     Social                      Social
 Transitions     Interaction                 Interactions
   Between                                   Observed
  Classroom
   Routines
  (Pattern)

                 Book Time                   7

                 Game                        1

Total of Social Interactions                 72

Aspect of the            Nature of                Teachers' Roles
 Curriculum:            Children's                   (Pattern)
  Open-Ended           Interactions
  Activities            (Examples)
  (Pattern)

Inside Free      Children engage in the      a) Monitors children's
Play             following activities:       behaviors. b) Redirects
                 rough and tumble play,      children to more appro-
                 playing catch with          priate activities (e.g.,
                 plastic bears, and          introduces a "tossing"
                 reading books together.     game whereby children
                                             throw the toys at each
                                             other).

                 Two children use the        Turns on computer and
                 computer software           sets up software.
                 together.

                 Children use the blocks     Monitors children's
                 in the hall. They climb     behavior and pro-
                 and engage in               vides redirection.
                 conversation with each
                 other.

                 Children use materials,     Asks questions and
                 and adopt and assign each   attempts to extend
                 other roles, while          the children's play.
                 engaged in pretend
                 scenarios involving
                 cooking and house play.

                 One child draws a picture   Teacher provides ma-
                 of another child in her     terials and points out
                 journal and describes       on a poster on a class-
                 what they are doing         room wall letters to
                 together.                   replicate.

                 A child from another        Teachers direct
                 classroom enters and        child to location of
                 interacts with a child in   requested child and
                 this classroom.             suggests she say
                                             "hello" to her.

Structured       A child shows another       Teacher observes. Art
Activities       child her painting. The     teacher provides ver-
                 other child models the      bal feedback.
                 child's painting.

                 A child pushes a child in   One teacher leads the
                 a wheelchair to the         meeting. The other
                 meeting area.               teachers provide sup-
                                             port and model appro-
                                             priate behaviors.

                 Children interact in a      Teacher leads the chil-
                 game of "London Bridge."    dren in this game by
                                             singing and acting out
                                             motions.

                 Children share and pass     Teacher provides ma-
                 materials.                  terials and makes
                                             comments on what
                                             children are doing.

Meals            A child feeds another       One teacher observes.
                 child (who has limited      Another teacher tells
                 physical mobility)          the child to stop feed-
                 Cheerios.                   ing the child Cheerios.
                                             The first teacher tells
                                             her to allow the child
                                             to continue feeding
                                             the child because it is
                                             one of the few times
                                             they have interacted
                                             together.

                 Children pass each other    One teacher sits at
                 food in a family style      each table and gives
                 environment.                verbal redirections
                                             and engages children
                                             in conversations.

Outside Free     One child chases another    Teachers observe
Play             child.                      activity from a dis-
                                             tance.

                 Two children engage in a    Teachers observe
                 game of chase.              activity from a dis-
                                             tance.

                 A child asks another        Teacher suggests to
                 child to play a game of     the child to ask the
                 "Duck, Duck, Goose."        other peer to play the
                                             game.

                 A group of children         Teachers are outside
                 engage in a game of         and observe from a
                 football.                   distance.

                 Two children pretend to     Teachers observe
                 make hot chocolate          from a distance.
                 together.

                 A child teaches another     Teachers observe
                 child how to flip on the    from a distance.
                 swing.

Aspect of the            Nature of                Teachers' Roles
 Curriculum:            Children's                   (Pattern)
 Transitions           Interactions
   Between              (Examples)
  Classroom
   Routines
  (Pattern)

                 As children finish          Some teachers are in
                 hygiene activities          the bathroom assist-
                 (toileting, washing         ing with hygiene ac-
                 hands), they read books     tivities, one or more
                 on the carpet with peers    are cleaning up from
                 or with teachers.           breakfast, and one
                                             or more are on the
                                             carpet reading with
                                             children.

                 Children take turns doing   One teacher leads
                 motions (e.g., dancing,     the game; the
                 gymnastics) in the middle   other teachers set
                 of a circle while the       up lunch or assist
                 others sing and clap.       children in the
                                             bathroom.
Total of Social Interactions

Table 3
Social Interactions--"The Daffodils"

Aspect of the   Site of Social    Number of           Nature of
 Curriculum:     Interaction        Social            Children's
 Open-Ended                      Interactions        Interactions
 Activities                        Observed           (Examples)
  (Pattern)

Inside Free     Block Area       5             Two children play
Play                                           together with dinosaurs
                                               by the large window
                                               nook.

                Book Area        1             Two children read a
                                               book together.

                Computer         4             One child uses the
                                               computer. Another
                                               child joins her.

                Housekeeping     9             A child asks another
                                               child if he wants a
                                               donut and pretends to
                                               sell donuts.

                Large Motor      2             Children jump, and
                Room                           watch each other jump,
                                               into the ball pit.

                Rug Area         7             Children dance
                                               together.

                Tables           10            Children use play-dough
                                               together. They
                                               ask each other for tools
                                               and share materials.

                Other            2             A child, who has very
                                               limited language and
                                               displays autistic-like
                                               characteristics, throws
                                               pieces out of the tub.
                                               Another child comes
                                               over and places his hand
                                               over hers to assist her
                                               in picking up.

Structured      Tables           8             Children sit at tables
Activities                                     and use available
                                               materials. They pretend
                                               to make food and eat it.

                Tubs             4             Two peers use sensory
                                               materials together and
                                               talk about the material.

Outside Free    Climber          1             Children are on a
Play                                           climber that looks like
                                               a truck. They pretend
                                               to drive to a restaurant
                                               together.

                Open area        2             One child sees a bug in
                (grass/black-                  the drain and invites
                top)                           another child to look.

                Sandbox          3             A child throws a shovel
                                               out of the sandbox and
                                               another child picks it
                                               up and puts it back in
                                               as he walks by.

                Swings           1             Four children are at
                                               the swings. Two are
                                               swinging and two are
                                               pushing.

Aspect of the   Site of Social    Number of           Nature of
 Curriculum:     Interaction        Social            Children's
 Transitions                     Interactions        Interactions
   between                         Observed           (Examples)
   Routine
 Activities
  (Pattern)

                Carpet Area      3             A child holds up the
                                               "peace" symbol to
                                               another child who is
                                               talking. The "peace"
                                               symbol is the signal to
                                               be quiet.

                Lining Up        4             Children are
                                               responsible for holding
                                               their buddies' hands and
                                               making sure they
                                               get to the next area
                                               safely.

Total of Social Interactions     66

Aspect of the   Site of Social   Teachers' Roles
 Curriculum:     Interaction      (Pattern)
 Open-Ended
 Activities
  (Pattern)

Inside Free     Block Area       Teachers not present
Play                             in this area.

                Book Area        Teachers not present
                                 in this area.

                Computer         Teacher turns on the
                                 computer and starts
                                 the program.

                Housekeeping     Teachers not present
                                 in area.

                Large Motor      Teachers observe the
                Room             children and provide
                                 redirection as needed.

                Rug Area         Teacher turns on
                                 music and models
                                 dancing together
                                 with a partner.

                Tables           Teachers set up the
                                 materials and one
                                 teacher sits at one
                                 end of the table. She
                                 monitors and provides
                                 redirection.

                Other            Teacher observes and
                                 asks her to pick them
                                 up. Teacher comments,
                                 "He's modeling what
                                 the teachers do."

Structured      Tables           Teachers select
Activities                       manipulatives and place
                                 them at two different
                                 tables. One teacher
                                 sits at a table and
                                 makes occasional
                                 comments to the children.

                Tubs             Teachers put materials
                                 in the tubs and
                                 invite two peers to use
                                 these materials.

Outside Free    Climber          Teachers observe from
Play                             a distance.

                Open area        Teachers observe
                (grass/black-    other children.
                top)

                Sandbox          Teachers observe from
                                 a distance.

                Swings           Teachers observe from
                                 a distance.

Aspect of the   Site of Social   Teachers' Roles
 Curriculum:     Interaction      (Pattern)
 Transitions
   between
   Routine
 Activities
  (Pattern)

                Carpet Area      One teacher monitors
                                 the bathroom; the
                                 other teacher reads a
                                 book to the children
                                 at the carpet.

                Lining Up        Teachers assign each
                                 child a buddy. A teacher
                                 stands at the front
                                 of the line and another
                                 teacher stands at the
                                 back of the line.

Total of Social Interactions

Table 4
Documenting Children's Social Interactions

* Select a time in the day when children's social interactions
are more likely to occur (e.g., center
areas, project activities, playground, free play).

* Focus on one social interaction; take a picture and/or take
notes about the interaction (what
children are involved, type of activity, the teacher's actions).

* Reflect on the episode (preferably with another adult) by responding
to the following questions: At what point in the classroom routine did
the event occur? Who was involved? What was the nature of the
interaction? What does this interaction reveal about the children's
learning? What are the teacher's next steps in promoting a similar
interaction? (e.g., changes in the curriculum or changes in teacher
interactions with the children).