Making the science literacy connection: after-school science clubs.

Glancing about the room, we see elementary students viewing water samples from local wetlands with amazement and awe. We hear students' voices exclaim, "Look what I found--a green water spider walking on the water"; "Hey! Now I know what duckweed looks like. I've seen that before on my neighbor's pond. It floats on top of the water"; and "Look! A water scorpion! It's kind of long and swims fast." While observing the water samples, Karima and her friends made discoveries about the organisms that live in the water, their characteristics, and their behavior. For example, while observing the water scorpion, Karima noticed that water scorpions have two little eyes and legs to capture their prey. She also learned from her teacher that the water scorpion's tail forms a siphon for breathing at the surface.

Children make such discoveries spontaneously while participating in hands-on science learning experiences. These students were attending an after-school science program that was organized around authentic literacy activities and hands-on science learning experiences related to the theme of wetlands. Literacy connections formed natural bridges between students' prior experiences with the world around them, their questions, and new science learning adventures.

Following a brief review of the literature on integrating literacy with the science curriculum, this article will describe the Water Education Training (WET) Science Project and a sample 5-Step Learning Cycle lesson that was implemented in this after-school science program. The article also includes samples of children's writing, a description of what we learned from the WET project, and implications for classroom teachers.

WHAT DOES RESEARCH TELL US ABOUT THE CONNECTIONS BETWEEN LITERACY AND SCIENCE?

In an informational world, which values scientific discoveries and technological advances, science performance plays an increasingly important role in the school curriculum. Educators are renewing their efforts to improve science proficiency among students (American Association for the Advancement of Science [AAAS], 1993; National Research Council [NRC], 1996). Seeking ways to do so among students in southeast Michigan, the authors designed the WET project and included integrated theories related to literacy and science as described below.

Integrating Interdisciplinary Learning With Science Learning

One way to meet the demand of teaching science concepts is through integrated, interdisciplinary instruction--simultaneously addressing content from several subjects. In this way, teachers make effective use of classroom time and address content in more depth by removing artificial divisions among subjects. Simultaneously, students see connections within content areas and understand important concepts and ideas more easily (Barton & Smith, 2000; Diamond & Moore, 1995; Nuthall, 1999; Wallace & Pugalee, 2001).

Donald Graves (1999) suggests that integrated, interdisciplinary programs need to focus on reading, writing, history, art, science, and people. According to Graves (1999), it is "through people that children become engaged with the disciplines in the curriculum" (p. 38). By bringing life into learning through this focus on people, teachers can provide students with real-life experiences that enhance their understanding of science concepts. Graves (1999) reminds us that scientific breakthroughs are made because people observe, formulate hypotheses, and share their results with others.

Studies show that females (Belenky, 1986), African Americans (Ladson-Billings, 1994), and Latino students (Parker, 2001; Ramirez & Castaneda, 1974), in particular, respond positively to knowledge that is represented in a humanized or story format. Thus, a focus on people can spark interest in science, promote construction of scientific knowledge, and bring meaning to time learning (Carletti, Girard, & Willing, 1993; Daisey, 1996).

Integrating Writing With the Science Curriculum

Certain science inquiry skills, such as communicating, predicting, observing, and classifying, are common to the language arts curriculum (Carletti et al., 1993), and writing is an important way to instill understanding of science concepts. For example, through journal writing, students can record scientific observations and data, as well as pose questions and reflect upon what they have learned (Holliday, Yore, & Alvermann, 1994). Journal writing also promotes active learning as students generate ideas, make observations, discover questions, think about concepts, and reflect on information (Baker, 1996; Glenn & Muth, 1994). Ultimately, teachers can then use the journals to assess students' understanding of concepts (Berenson & Carter, 1995; Ogden, 1996; Pierce, 1998; Shepardson & Britsch, 2001).

The process of writing also enhances students' understanding of science concepts as they organize, clarify, and integrate their existing knowledge with new concepts (Glenn & Muth, 1994; Langer & Applebee, 1987). As they write, students reflect on and react to information, leading them to higher level thinking and concept development. Furthermore, they better understand and retain scientific information (Richardson & Morgan, 1994). Butler (1991) specifically reports that integrating writing with science increases student performance in science.

Integrating Hands-on Learning Experiences and Literature With the Science Curriculum

Hands-on learning experiences help students build concepts through active engagement and overcome the complexities of science concepts and vocabulary (AAAS, 1993; Guillaume, 1998; Lapp & Flood, 1993; NRC, 1996). Guillaume (1998) believes that these hands-on experiences then become part of the prior knowledge students bring to reading, writing, and science learning.

Using literature written by authors who care deeply and know a great deal about their subject (Cullinan, 1993) is another way to develop science concepts. Teachers can enhance the science curriculum and students' understanding of concepts through a growing selection of quality trade books (Camp, 2000; Guillaume, 1998; Yopp & Yopp, 2000). Lapp and Flood (1993) suggest that through literature, students become familiar with the language and text structure of science, while expanding their knowledge of science concepts. Just as important, the more that students read books related to science, time better they will understand other science texts, including more difficult science textbooks or more complex trade books (Butzow & Butzow, 1989; Guillaume, 1998).

Trade books also help students develop both the skills and motivation to pursue scientific inquiry. Daisey (1996), for example, reports that biographies of scientists can help students make strong connections with science, acquire background knowledge about science and scientific terminology, become inspired to learn more about science, and/or consider science as a career.

THE WATER EDUCATIONAL TRAINING SCIENCE PROJECT

The Water Educational Training (WET) Science Project, designed by the authors, is an after-school science program that promotes science literacy through the theme of water. The project brings together children (ages 8 to 11) and teachers from diverse school districts in southeast Michigan. Our goal was to strengthen students' content knowledge about the wetlands and real-life applications of science concepts related to water. We designed the WET Science Project to be an interdisciplinary framework that integrates storytelling, children's literature and science biographies, biology, chemistry, earth sciences, physics, and writing through 11 sequential lessons.

Bringing Real-Life Learning Into the WET Science Project

Seeking to bring real-life learning into the project, we selected a major problem facing scientists and society today--the maintenance and availability of high-quality fresh water--for our theme. We further adapted the hands-on learning activities from techniques that scientists apply while conducting water studies. Acting as scientists, students learned about the wetlands and wetland ecosystems through inquiry and communication. They made observations, formulated hypotheses, and shared their results with others through discussions and journal writing.

Using storytelling to role-play the biography of diverse scientists or naturalists who made a significant contribution to wetland or water studies, we added a humanized, story format to the project. As our students watched African American or female storytellers role-play famous scientists as they made discoveries, they began to realize the exciting careers they might pursue in science.

The 5-Step Learning Cycle

In order that students might construct their own knowledge while learning science concepts related to water, all lessons in the after-school program followed the 5-Step Learning Cycle (Trowbridge & Bybee, 1990). The students progressed according to the following steps: engage, explore, explain, elaborate, and evaluate.

During the first step, we hoped to engage the interest of the learner through either storyteller presentations of through the use of trade books related to the lesson's topic. We carefully designed the storytelling events or selected the books to help students make connections between their own life experiences and the lesson. During the engagement step, the storytellers role-played the lives of scientists, including: Ruth Patrick, a limnologist who pioneered the use of algae to detect changes in water conditions, and Wadja Egnankou, who was awarded the Goldman Environmental Prize for his research on mangrove forests. Some of the trade books we used were One Small Square Pond by Silver (1994), What Are Food Chains and Webs? by Kalman and Langille (1998), Here Is the Wetland by Dunphy (1996), and Water Dance by Locker (1997).

Following the engagement step, students actively explored the water environment or participated in experiments related to the water theme. During some lessons, students explored pond water, aquatic plants or animals, or earth sediments from the pond. During other lessons, they participated in experiments related to light and water temperature, soil, or water pollution. While participating in the engagement step activities, students frequently wrote in their journals about their experiments and their observations of the water environment.

During the third step ("explain"), teachers gave explanations for the phenomena students observed. Teachers expanded the science concepts and skills related to the wetlands theme.

The next steps, elaboration and evaluation, provided new opportunities for students to synthesize their learning through active involvement. For example, students talked about what they explored and learned in large groups, small groups, or pairs. At other times, they wrote explanations in their journals, created graphics to illustrate the science concepts, drew illustrations of animal or plant life, or illustrated various experiments they conducted, placing labels as needed. All of the lessons culminated with writing-to-learn activities during the evaluation stage of the lesson. Using their science journals, graphic organizers, or concept maps from the exploration and elaboration stages, students synthesized their understanding of the concepts through written explanations, stories, letters, or poems.

The sequence of the WET Project lessons began with a focus on the biology of wetland habitats through explorations of pond water, the discovery of wetland food webs, and experiments with aquatic and terrestrial plants. As the lessons continued, the focus moved to chemical changes in the wetland ecosystems through scientific investigations related to soil and ground water pollution. The lessons concluded with explorations of the effects of light and temperature on wetland habitats and organisms. An important aspect of all the lessons was inclusion of the objectives and content standards identified in both the National Science Education Standards (NRC, 1996) and the Michigan Curriculum Framework (Michigan Department of Education, 1996).

Taken together, the activities enhanced students' understanding of complex concepts and increased their retention of information. An example of the 5-Step Learning Cycle for the lesson "Exploring Life in a Wetland Habitat" is displayed in Figure 1.

[FIGURE 1 OMITTED]

WHAT DOES A SAMPLE 5-STEP LEARNING CYCLE LESSON LOOK LIKE?

To help students participating in the after-school program become familiar with wetlands and the many types of organisms found in these habitats, we designed a lesson titled, "Exploring Life in a Wetland Habitat." The lesson began during the engagement stage with a visit from a storyteller who portrayed the life of Marjory Stoneman Douglas, the author of The Everglades: River of Grass (cited in Keene, 1994). As they listened to the storyteller role-play, students learned that Marjory Stoneman Douglas devoted her life to preserving and educating others about the Florida Everglades. They then were able to relate the events of the story to what they had learned from studying a poster of the Michigan wetlands produced by the Michigan Department of Natural Resources.

During the exploration step, groups of 4 or 5 students each explored pond water that had been placed in plastic containers. To help them identify the organisms, we placed Pond Watcher Guides at each center and displayed the poster of the Michigan wetlands for all to see. As students explored the pond water at each center, they drew and labeled the organisms they observed in their science journals. They also added illustrations or lists of organisms they might see, as indicated by the Pond Watcher Guide or the poster. For example, Kylie recorded what she saw and what she might see:

THINGS I SAW          THINGS I MIGHT SEE

Duckweed              Water bugs
Whirly bug beetles    Snail shells
Water boatmen         Water spider
Bark                  Frogs--tadpoles
Fingernail clam       Snapping turtle

As they circulated throughout the classroom, the teachers encouraged students to add information next to their drawings that would detail the color, size, and texture of the organisms. They also encouraged students to use their senses to tell what the organisms looked like, smelled like, or felt like, and to place their descriptions beneath the drawings. Leanna recorded her observations at each center in list form. She interspersed drawings with her notes to illustrate unusual organisms, such as the fingernail clams.

   Green floatys at the top of the water
   Little black worms, does curly movements
   A green water spider, walks on water
   A broken walnut
   Coon-tail waterweeds
   Two round berries

Randy, however, recorded his observations in the form of running sentences or phrases. He also made detailed drawings of his observations at the various centers and labeled the various organisms. His notes looked like this:

   Station 1
   I see either plants and animals. It is too hard to tell.
   Station 2
   I saw so far a like egg shape. Some kind of fuzzy thing
   like water bugs, accorns and berries.

As teachers circulated from group to group, they also pointed out the names of organisms and shared additional facts about each organism and its habits. After learning more about the water scorpion, Karima wrote:

   The first thing that I saw was a ugly looking thing. But
   I keep looking at it and I thought it look cute it is long
   4" and swim fast he has two litte eyes and has legs to
   capture prey. The long tail 5" form a siphon for
   breathing at the surface.

In the explanation stage of the lesson, students regrouped as a class, sharing what organisms they had observed and identified in the pond water. Teachers listed their responses in two categories--Organisms We Saw and Organisms We Might See--on chart paper. Next, they explained additional concepts related to the wetlands. For example, they shared that wetlands are formed when rainwater or overflow water from flooded rivers and lakes fills natural dips in the land created from glaciers. They also pointed out that wetlands, which are usually covered by shallow water, can be merely spots with soggy soil during some months of the year. In addition, teachers described the different types of wetlands one might see--swamps, thick with trees; bogs, covered with thick layers of sphagnum moss that hide the water; or marshes, filled with grasses, reed, and cattails, but no trees.

In the final stage of the lesson, students either wrote about the various activities they participated in during the session, or they wrote a description of an organism from the wetland habitat. Teachers then displayed a possible model for constructing a narration about their experiences on chart paper:

   First, I....
   Second, I....
   Then, I....
   Next, I....
   Last, I....
   As I did these things, I....

This format modeled various transition words that students might use in their narrations. Students could consult their journals and the charts displayed around the classroom in their narration. Teachers also displayed a poem on chart paper for students who might want to try writing a poem:

   Water bug
   Oval, brown bug
   Eats tadpoles
   Kills insects
   Bites small fish
   Creeps through the pond water
   Water bug

Giving students choices allowed them to determine how they wanted to display their knowledge about the wetland habitat and its creatures. Some students preferred to record their ideas in the narrative format. The next two entries illustrate how Nasreen and Amanda, respectively, described what they learned:

   I learned about tad poles and the water stinks too. Learning
   about bugs is so fun and cool. I saw a sick fish and it looks
   like a shell. And they are cool. They need a lot of food. If
   they do not have food, they will die. Learning is so very fun.

   I learned about wetlands and all sorts of water. I think the
   neatest thing was the tad poles. The bugs were neat too.
   There were all different kinds of bugs. I learned how neat
   water can be. I think it looks cool and fun to learn about. I
   like the duckweeds. I think water is the most important
   because you can grow food with water. And you can grow
   trees and cut them down and make a house.

Katie narrated the various events she experienced, while Iman described his observations of the pond water. Nicholas tried writing a poem about a snail.

   The first thing was I looked inside the water to see what
   was in it. Second I wrote my picture about what I seen
   inside the bowl. Then I looked again and I wrote and draw
   it. Next we looked at the water bug map to see what we
   might see. Last thing I did was draw something. (Katie)
   Duckweeds can carpet a pond's surface. A water stride is
   supported by a surface tension. A cadesfly larva provides
   cameflage and protection. I think food is the most important
   thing you need because you can die without food.
   (Iman)

   Snail
   Small, round bug
   Sticks to a lot of things
   Carries his home on his back
   When scared, goes in
   Eats tiny things for a snack
   Climbs on seaweed
   He almost got eaten by a duck by the seaweed
   Snail (Nicholas)

The children's writing illustrates the knowledge they gained from the science learning experience. While students recorded their ideas, teachers moved about to offer praise for their writing ideas. They also stopped periodically to allow a few students to share their writing with the group. This inspired those who were not yet comfortable with writing to record their own ideas.

WHAT DID WE LEARN FROM THE WET SCIENCE PROJECT?

To evaluate the WET science project, we used several data sources, including observations, interviews, and questionnaires. The emerging information from teachers, students, and their parents provided insight into the program and its benefits to elementary students.

Specifically, the evaluation findings consistently revealed that the interdisciplinary approach sparked enthusiasm and interest in science learning experiences. Writing--especially journal writing that includes observations, webs, charts, or graphs--helped students understand and retain the science concepts over time.

The findings from observations and interviews revealed how students reacted to the program and how their performance changed. We found that:

* Students were highly engaged and motivated

* Students' attitudes toward science and writing improved

* Students became more comfortable with writing, as evidenced by longer journal entries and more detailed observations

* Students gained a high level of knowledge about the science concepts

* Students retained information and knowledge about wetlands over time

* Many girls became more comfortable with science through the use of storytelling, literature, drawing, or writing activities

* Culturally diverse students became more motivated and interested in learning about science through the use of storytellers, literature, and stories that reflected their cultural history and traditions.

The multiple data sources also provide insight into students' feelings about the after-school sessions. Classroom teachers reported that students talked about science during the school day, when they hadn't done so before. Parents also noted that their children were sharing the information they had learned about wetlands at home. Parents reported, "She talks about how fun it is and always has a positive attitude"; "He enjoys going to science club and talks about it all the time"; and "She wants to be a science major now." The students' responses capture their positive feelings about the program: "I feel good, and I like it because I get to learn new things." "I got to do experiments with my friends after school. It was a lot of fun."

Evaluation data also revealed that the elementary students improved their knowledge and understanding of the science concepts related to water and the wetland environment. Teachers noted that they were impressed to see evidence of the students applying the concepts they were learning from one lesson to the next. They believed that the lessons' structure and the writing component helped students learn and retain the information. As one teacher shared, "I've noticed people who weren't all that involved with note-taking at the beginning have done more lately. They realized that [adding] more details and pictures helps them to write later on."

The parents' responses also indicated that students were increasing their knowledge about science concepts. For example, one parent explained, "We live near a creek and my daughter can tell us a lot about what we find in it." Another shared, "My son enjoys our family trips to the Crosswinds Marsh now because he is more knowledgeable about the wetlands." They added that their children were more conscientious about the need to take care of the environment and the wetlands.

The students' responses demonstrate their acquired knowledge. One student explained, "I learned that wetlands [are] a combination of different parts--plants and animals together. There's a high grassy part, then a lower part, then a swampy part." Others pointed out, "I learned if we are not careful, we won't have clean water when we get old"; and "I learned that when holes get poked into a barrel, and it leaks out, oil and stuff goes into the ground and the water underground. This hurts the groundwater."

What Are the Implications for Classroom Teachers?

As teachers continue to search for ways to revitalize the science curriculum, it appears that an integrated, interdisciplinary program, combined with hands-on learning experiences, may provide an exciting, alternative approach. We hope our readers realize the importance and value of integrated learning while creating their own themes for science learning, as occurred for the teachers implementing the WET after-school program.

Revitalizing the science curriculum can further promote science proficiency if the interdisciplinary approach includes the integration of science and writing. As one teacher observed, "I really like the integration between the writing and the science. You can really see what they remember and understand." Another continued, "I've always heard that writing things down increases your retention. As a teacher, you want the kids to learn as much as possible. Writing may be hard for them, but it gets stuff stuck in the brain--that's the whole point of the exercise." Other teachers added that writing activities became the "key to getting those higher level skills." One student, Ali, commented, "Writing helps us understand it better and understand what we know better." Kaitlyn shared: "Writing helps me remember what I learned because I had to think about it more when I wrote about it."

Integrated, interdisciplinary learning can breathe life into science through such tools as storytelling and children's literature. This humanized format captures students' interest and builds background knowledge for science lessons. Perhaps such strategies will inspire more culturally diverse students and girls to find their places in the world of science, or consider pursuing a career in science. Asia commented, "Someday I might want to be a scientist, and then I would know all these things."

However, as Lapp and Flood (1993) caution, we need to retain the integrity of the content areas and the literacy program when we use integrated, interdisciplinary teaching. Each requires dedicated instruction. We need to focus on the content students need to learn; we also need to build in a variety of texts and response activities and create opportunities for student choice. Throughout the learning experiences, we further need to guide and mediate student learning through authentic, real-life events.

To help others begin their explorations with integrated interdisciplinary teaching, we created a Web site (see www.emich.edu/wrc/WET.html) about the WET science project. Risk takers can easily try some of the lessons we designed for the after-school science program within their own classrooms.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank their colleagues Bonnie Wylo, Doreen Mobley, Teresa Crnkovich, and Janis Hicks for their contributions and assistance in the implementation of the WET Project. They also would like to thank the teachers, preservice teachers, and elementary students who participated in the WET project for their insights, enthusiasm, and excitement as we implemented the after-school program in their schools. Financial support was provided by a Dwight D. Eisenhower Higher Education Professional Development Grant (Project #0290-203) and funds from the Water Resources Consortium at Eastern Michigan University.

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Children's Literature

Dunphy, M. (1996). Here is the wetland. New York: Hyperion Books for Children.

Kalman, B., & Langille, J. (1998). What are food chains and webs? New York: Crabtree Publishing.

Locker, T. (1997). Water dance. San Diego: Harcourt Brace.

Silver, D. (1994). One small square pond. New York: Learning Triangle Press.

Margaret A. Moore-Hart is Professor, College of Education, Peggy Liggit is Associate Professor, College of Arts and Sciences, and Peggy Daisey is Professor, College of Education, Eastern Michigan University, Ypsilanti.