Looking beyond the jockocracy: finding competent recreational sport managers.

In another time and in another context, sports broadcaster Howard Cosell used to rant against the idea of "jockocray"--that is, television networks providing broadcasting jobs for former professional athletes with no formal training as sports journalists. A similar argument has been made with respect to the qualifications of personnel in a number of jobs in the sport industry, including recreational sport management.

The popularity of sport as a recreational pursuit has created a demand for competent managers capable of designing and delivering sport programs and services (Mull, et al., 1997; Ross & Young, 1998). In addition, the growing popularity of youth sports, and a number of well-publicized incidents of violence, overtraining and hyper-competitiveness, have led to various summits and interventions focusing on raising community and professional standards for grassroots sport professionals (NAYS-NRPA, 2001). A growing number of professional organizations, including NRPA, have devoted significant energy and resources to providing professional training and continuing education opportunities for recreational sport professionals.

If Cosell's jockocracy exists in the recreational sports field, it is quickly being discredited. While the local high school sports hero might still be able to get a full-time job working with community recreational sports programs, there is a good chance that to be competitive for that job, he will need a college education and competence in business, management, communications, technology, legality/risk management, research and evaluation and event programming (Barcelona, 2001; Toh, 1997).

Recreational sport professionals practice their trade in diverse employment settings, such as public recreation programs, campus recreation departments, commercial venues, military bases and correctional institutions (Mull, et al, 1997). In addition, organizations within each setting differ with respect to size, as well as the number and level of full-time staff devoted to providing sport programs and services. If recreation directors are seeking competent professionals capable of planning and delivering recreational sport programs in increasingly complex and diverse environments, it is necessary to understand what to look for in a potential recreational sport manager. The purpose of this research update is to examine the research that has been conducted on recreational sport competencies, and to provide recreation directors with recommendations for hiring competent sport managers for positions in a variety of diverse and complex sport settings.

Recreational Sport Management Competencies

Many researchers have attempted to define the body of knowledge needed to produce competent recreational sport managers. Jamieson (1980) was one of the first, and her research in this area became the foundation for the certification of recreational sports professionals through the National Intramural-Recreational Sports Association (NIRSA). Jamieson identified competencies in business, management, communications, technology, legality/risk management, philosophy/sport science, research/evaluation and event programming as the key knowledge areas for recreational sport managers to possess. Other studies supported these findings, identifying the same or similar areas of competency (Afthinos, 1998; Barcelona, 2001; DeSensi, et al., 1990; Lambrecht, 1991; NASPE/NASSM, 1993; Toh, 1997).

Several researchers have noted the difference in the general body of knowledge necessary for entry-level compared to upper-level recreational sport managers (Jamieson, 1980; Skipper, 1990; Toh, 1997; Barcelona, in press). In general, direct service competencies such as sport programming and event management have been found to be more important for entry-level sport programmers than for upper-level sport administrators. This reflects the job duties of many entry-level recreational sport managers, as they are most likely to be responsible for program design and direct service delivery. Upper-level sport administrators, on the other hand, need to be more prepared in areas related to business administration, technology, research, evaluation and the various types of management tasks (personnel, risk, facilities and equipment).

Research has shown that both agency type and organizational size make a difference in the competencies required of recreational sport managers (Barcelona, in press; Cuskelly & Auld, 1991; DeSensi, et al., 1990; Lambrecht, 1991). For example, a study by Barcelona (in press) found significant differences between campus and public recreation agencies with respect to the importance placed on a number of competency areas. Respondents indicated that research and evaluation, philosophy/sport science and legality/ risk management were more important for recreational sport managers in campus recreation agencies. It was also found that competence in sport programming/event management was more important for recreational sport professionals in public recreation agencies.

The nature of the job environment dictates the body of knowledge necessary for sport administrators in various settings. Recreational sport managers in campus recreation, for instance, may have a greater need to understand the theoretical, foundational and research-oriented aspects of recreational sports, owing to their role within the higher education setting. Similarly, sport programming competencies might be less important, as much of the direct service delivery in the campus setting is handled by undergraduate employees or graduate assistants. Recreational sport managers in public recreation agencies may play a more direct role in providing sport programs mad services than their colleagues in campus settings, and consequently place a higher emphasis on program design and delivery skills.

Researchers have also noted differences in the competencies required of sport managers within the same agency setting. A study by Barcelona (in press) shows that smaller organizations see the need for upper-level personnel to be more competent in more areas than larger organizations. This fits with the notion of managerial complexity--as sport organizations get larger, jobs become more differentiated, and job tasks become increasingly specialized (Lambrecht, 1991; Slack, 1997). It is important for personnel in smaller agencies with fewer staff to be competent in more areas owing to this lack of differentiation. Recreational sport managers in smaller agencies are asked to wear more hats; they may be asked to play the role of CEO, facility coordinator, compliance officer and tournament administrator more often than their counterparts who have subordinate staff to carry out these specialized roles. The importance of specific knowledge in these areas is probably less important for upper-level administrators who have large staffs, as more of their time is spent on issues related to communication, coordination and control (Slack, 1997), and less in areas specifically related to recreational sport management and programming.

Academic Preparation and Certification Programs

Academic preparation programs in sport management have flourished since the first graduate program was established at Ohio University in 1964 (Crosset et al, 1998; NASPE-NASSM, 1993). Today, there are nearly 210 academic programs offering a major or program of study in sport management (Ross & Young, 1998). One of the complexities of hiring sport management graduates for jobs in recreation settings is discerning whether their academic preparation included an emphasis in recreational sport. While sport management programs should provide a broad background of the sport industry and expose students to a wide range of sport settings, including recreational sport (DeSensi, et al., 1991; NASPE-NASSM, 1993), a significant number of academic preparation programs are still not requiring coursework addressing sport in recreational settings (Ross & Young, 1998).

Likewise, recreation educators have yet to clearly define the philosophical emphasis of sport management within parks and recreation curricula. Despite this, research shows that approximately 6 out of 10 sport management programs housed as stand-alone departments or as program areas within recreation/leisure studies or kinesiology/ physical education claim to provide students with a balanced sport background, including providing students with course options focusing on recreational sport management. Recreation directors in a number of agency settings have noted strong support for undergraduate and graduate programs focusing on recreational sport management competencies (Barcelona, 2001).

Certification for the recreational sports specialist has been in place since 1981, and has been administered by NIRSA. The certified recreational sports specialist (CRSS) title was implemented to identify entry-level professionals who met a set of basic professional standards of competence. Competency areas assessed by the CRSS include programming, management and operations, risk management and legal concepts, program evaluation, participants' rights, history and professional foundations, and professional ethics (NIRSA, 2003). While the competency areas assessed through certification generally follow those identified in the research literature, the importance of certification for the recreational sport specialist has been questioned by recreation directors in a number of agency settings. In fact, most recreation directors believe that current certification programs (including CRSS and the certified park and recreation professional, or CPRP) do not adequately assess the competence of recreational sport managers (Barcelona, 2001).

Certification for recreational sport professionals has also been the focus of recent efforts on the part of organizations such as the National Alliance for Youth Sports (NAYS). NAYS, in conjunction with park and recreation directors throughout the U.S., has recently recommended increasing professional standards for community youth-sports administrators in response to a growing number of negative youth-sport incidents. While it has been reported that an estimated 70 percent of youth-sports programs are operated by parent interest groups (NAYS-NRPA, 2001), many of these groups are ultimately accountable to a public agency such as a park and recreation department. According to NAYS, to increase professional standards among youth-sport professionals, professional youth-sports administrators should possess a college degree with specific training in youth-sports administration, have excellent communication and leadership skills, and obtain the certified youth sports administrator (CYSA) credential (NAYS-NRPA, 2001).

Hiring the Competent Sport Manager

Mull et al. (1997) estimate that between 50 percent and 80 percent of all recreation programming is related to recreational sport or physical activity. Many academic programs have seen dramatic increases in the numbers of students interested in sport management as an area of study and a place for future employment. While jobs with professional sport franchises and major college athletic programs are appealing to sport management students, the number of positions in these settings are limited (Hums & Goldsbury, 1998). Employment within recreational sport represents a viable career opportunity for graduates of recreation and sport management academic programs. According to the U.S. Department of Labor, jobs in the recreational sport, fitness and physical activity industry are expected to grow much faster than average through the year 2010 (U.S. Department of Labor, 2002). According to Ross and Young (1998), fitness and sport clubs, sport facilities, YMCAs, campus recreation, and public parks and recreation were among the top ten employment settings reported by newly degreed sport management undergraduate and graduate students.

It is becoming clear that both the jobs and qualified professionals to fill them exist within recreational sport. The past 30 years have seen the field of sport management grow in complexity and scope (Crosset, et al., 1998). The field of recreational sport management reflects this pattern, and is more than likely a result of demands for more and better services targeting participation in sport at the grassroots level. This development has created the need for specialized skills and knowledge to meet the needs of a diverse array of sport participants. The demand for recreational sport opportunities enhances the need for well-educated, well-trained and competent sport managers in a variety of recreational sport settings.

Research on competencies allows recreation directors to understand the knowledge areas and skills necessary to manage recreational sport programs in a diverse array of settings and organizations. Such research can also provide a basis for hiring qualified personnel who have demonstrated competence in recreational sport management through academic preparation, professional experience and certification.

Sport management is still a curricular area with little consistency of meaning in terms of the type of academic preparation that students receive. Sport and physical activity is a component of a number of academic preparation programs, including recreation/leisure studies, physical education/kinesiology and business. Understanding the scope and importance of jobs in recreational sport helps faculty build courses and curricula that not only mention but adequately address this area of the sport industry. Further, research in this area allows faculty in academic preparation programs to continue to develop their curricula in recreational sport management to meet the demands of the job market, and to increase the relevance of the courses they offer.

Hiring for competence is necessary if recreation directors and sport management faculty are determined to increase the knowledge and professionalism of employees in recreational sports, and if the field is to continue to dispel the myth of Cosell's jockocracy within this segment of the sport industry.

RESEARCH INTO ACTION: HELP WITH HIRING

Recreation professionals can use the research that has been conducted on the academic preparation and competencies of recreational sport managers to make informed decisions when hiring staff for these important positions within their agencies. Some ideas include:

Recreational Sports is a Popular Career Choice for Sport Management Students: Despite the allure of jobs in professional sports and elite school and college athletics programs, jobs in recreational sports continue to be among the most popular employment settings for sport management graduates. This pool of candidates is fertile ground for recreational sport programs to grow and recruit future professionals through offering field-based experiences, practice and internship experiences. When sport management students are exposed to recreational sport settings, their eyes are opened about the possibilities of employment in these areas.

Not All Sport Management Programs are Created Equal: Just because a candidate has academic preparation in sport management does not mean that she understands the recreational sport setting. While most sport management programs claim they offer academic preparation in recreational sports, the majority of programs do not require coursework specifically focused on recreational sport management. Students coming from sport management programs housed within recreation/leisure studies departments are more likely to have had specific preparation focused on recreational sports than students from stand-alone sport management programs or programs housed in physical education/kinesiology departments. While the college degree is important, it might be better to focus on a candidate's internship, field-work, or job experience to determine her qualifications for the position.

Evaluate Applicants Based on Competency Areas: The research on recreational sport management competencies is fairly clear. Even where differences in competency requirements have been noted between agency settings and organizational types, there is general support for a core body of knowledge for recreational sport professionals in the literature. Look for candidates who have demonstrated competence in business procedures, management techniques, sport programming/event management; communications/public relations, computer skins, facility management, governance, risk management, recreational sport philosophy/foundations and research/evaluation.

Different Job Levels = Different Areas of Competence: While a core body of knowledge exists across agency settings and job types, in general, upper-level recreational sport administrators should have a strong business/management background and an understanding of research and evaluation. Be sure that entry-level candidates understand the philosophy and foundations of recreational sports, and how this philosophy underlies sport programming efforts.

Recreational Sport Managers in Small Organizations Wear Many Hats: The staff member responsible for recreational sport programs and services in small organizations should be more competent in more areas than their counterparts in large organizations. It is important for small agencies to hire individuals who have broad knowledge and experience in a number of areas related to recreation and sport management rather than specific knowledge in niche facets of the sport industry.

Certification of Recreational Sports Professionals May Have Value: Despite a general belief among recreation directors that current certification programs do not adequately assess the competence of recreational sport managers, such certification programs do demonstrate a level of professional commitment to the field. While hiring agencies might not be convinced that certification by itself is a valid measure of competence, certification along with relevant academic preparation and field-work experiences in recreational sport provides multiple measures of competence and professional commitment.

Good Sports

The following organizations provide professional development opportunities for recreational sport professionals:

National Recreation and Park

Association: www.nrpa.org

National Intramural-Recreational

Sports Association:

www.nirsa.org

American Alliance for Health, Physical

Education, Recreation & Dance:

www.aahperd.org

Athletic Business:

www.athleticbusiness.org

National Alliance for Youth Sports:

www.nays.org

References

Afthinos, I.K. (1993). An analysis of perceived competencies of Sports for All managers in Greece. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, New York University, New York.

Barcelona, R.J. (in press). Examining the importance of recreational sport management competencies based on management level, agency type, and organizational size. Manuscript accepted for publication in the Recreational Sports Journal.

Barcelona, R.J. (2001). An analysis of the perceived competencies of recreational sport managers: Toward a competency-based model for academic and professional development. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Indiana University, Bloomington.

Crosset, T.W., Bromage, S., & Hums, M.A. (1098). In L.P. Masteralexis, C.A. Barr. & M.A. Hums (Eds.). Principles and practice of sport management. Gaithersburg, MD: Aspen Publishers.

Cuskelly, G. & Auld, C. (1991). Perceived importance of selected job responsibilities of sport and recreation managers. Journal of Sport Management, 5, 34-46.

DeSensi, J.T., Kelley, D.R., Blanton, M.D., & Beitel, P.A. (1990). Sport management curricular evaluation and needs assessment: A multifaceted approach. Journal of Sport Management, 4, 31-58.

Hums, M.A. & Goldsbury, V.R. (1998). Strategies for career success. In L.P. Masteralexis, C.A. Barr, & M.A. Hums (Eds.). Principles and practice of sport management. Gaithersburg, MD: Aspen Publishers.

Jamieson, L.M. (1960). A competency analysis of recreational sports personnel in selected institutional settings. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Indiana University, Bloomington.

Lambrecht, K.W. (1991). A study of the curricular preparation needs for sport club managers. Journal of Sport Management, 5, 47-57.

Mull, R.F., Bayless, K.G., Ross, C.M., & Jamieson, L.M. (1997). Recreational sports management: Third edition. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

NASPE/NASSM Joint Task Force on Sport Management Curriculum and Accreditation (1993). Standards and voluntary accreditation of sport management education programs. Journal of Sport Management, 7, 159-170.

NAYS-NRPA (2001). Recommendations for communities: Developed through the National Summit on Raising Community Standards in Children's Sports. West Palm Beach, FL: National Alliance for Youth Sports.

National Intramural-Recreational Sports Association (2003). Certified Recreational Sports Specialist (CRSS) study guide. Retrieved Aug. 16, 2003 from www.nrisa.org/secure/crss/crss_study_guide.htm.

Ross, C.M., & Young, S.J. (1998). Sport management curriculums: A descriptive study of the current status. NIRSA Journal, 22(4), 45-54.

Skipper, W. (1990). Competencies of collegiate sports facility managers: Implications for a facility management curricular model. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Arkansas, Fafayetteville.

Slack, T. (1998). Understanding sport organizations: The application of organizational theory. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics

Toh, K.L. (1997). Constructing and validating competencies of sport managers (COSM) instrument: A model development. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Indiana University, Bloomington.

United States Department of Labor (2002). Occupational outlook handbook 2002-2003 edition. Retrieved Feb. 19, 2003, from www.bls.gov/oco/ocos058.htm.

Bob Barcelona, Ph.D., is an assistant professor in the Department of Recreation Management and Policy at the University of New Hampshire. Barcelona has worked professionally in the field of campus recreation in the area of intramural sports and sport club administration. His research interests include organizational behavior in sport and recreation agencies, intersectoral partnerships and collaboration networks, and academic and professional development in recreation and sport management.