Listening to my students: the digital divide.

Abstract

This article reports on what a small group of students had to say about class, access, and the digital divide. Drawing on a research project composed of a survey of eight first-year composition courses and the writings of a small group of students enrolled in a "Writing and Technology" course, the results reveal students commenting on a lack of access to computers, a lack they often linked to socioeconomic class.

Introduction

I distinctly remember my first encounter with a computer: a gorgeous Compucolor II. I can also recall my first attempt at writing with a computer: a paper on Job's suffering typed dutifully into a Mac Classic. But when I began teaching writing in a computer lab a few years ago I began to wonder--what did my students know about computers? Did they struggle as I did when I first began using them, or were they fully comfortable with these machines?

To find out more about my students' experiences with computers I devised a research project composed of a survey of eight first-year college composition courses, as well as follow-up discussions with each of the classes that contributed to the survey. I also got a more individual perspective by working closely with eleven students who participated in a specially designed course entitled "Writing and Technology" that invited students to participate in the research process through reading, discussion, and writing. In working with the students I was surprised by how many commented on a lack of access to computers, a lack they often linked to socioeconomic class in their writings. This article reports on what a small group of students had to say about class, access, and the digital divide.

But before I turn to the students, I should look to the academic community, where scholars have begun to examine how wealth functions to divide students in relation to technology. However, according to Ray Yau (1999), "the current state of research on the availability and effectiveness of educational technology is very weak--particularly as it pertains to equity issues" (p. 5). In the preface to the "Diversity" issue of Computers and Composition, guest editors Margaret Barber, Laura Sullivan, and Janice Walker (1997) argued, "access to technology is the primary concern upon which most others ultimately rest" (p. 164), and in "Access: The 'A' Word in Technology Studies" Charles Moran (1999) explained:

   there are haves and have nots among us and among our students, and
   we feel that the situation is getting worse, and we feel that the
   technology that fascinates us may be partially responsible, and we
   choose, for a range of good reasons, to ignore what we know and
   press on with our own research and writing agendas. (p. 206)

Moran looked to scholarship in economics to establish that "the situation is even more desperate than I've so far suggested" (p. 215), and further cautioned that "we have to bring this topic forward on our agenda and give it more attention than we have in the past" (p. 220).

Some scholars have given the digital divide "more attention." Thomas Reynolds and Charles Lewis (1997) asserted that access is not necessarily an either/or position in the article "The Changing Topography of Computer Access for Composition Students." They argued that while some students do have home computers, they are incompatible with school computers and cautioned that although some universities provide computer labs, these facilities may entail a dangerous walk across campus. In considering the access our students have to computers we must also consider the many "unseen" difficulties they face.

Furthermore, as Charles Olson (1987) noted in "Who Computes," it isn't enough for students to simply have access to computers in schools. Olson argued, "the debate on computers in schools involves more than the technical issue of the computer's capacity; within this discourse is nested a struggle over the ideology and practice of the politics of literacy" (p. 182). The dialogue addressing the digital divide is not only about putting computers in schools but also about equity in education. Even when poorer schools have computers, they are not necessarily utilized to their full extent. For example, Ray Yau (1999), referring to statistics from the National Center for Educational Statistics in 1997, stated, "among public schools with 71% or more of its students eligible for the federal lunch program, only 63% had access to the Internet--in contrast to the aggregate figure of 78% for all schools across the United States" (p. 2). Even when students from poorer backgrounds have access to computers at home, they are more likely to have older models with fewer capabilities.

However, some educators, such as Solveig Singleton and Lucas Mast (2000), refute concerns about the digital divide in education. In "How Does the Empty Glass Fill: A Modern Philosophy of the Digital Divide," Singleton and Mast stressed that "For students who can read, who can figure, and who have 'learned how to learn,' lack of exposure to digital equipment in education will not be much of a handicap" (p. 33). Reading this I can't help but think of Lulu [1], one of the students I worked with who struggled in a class that involved extensive computer use. She remembered, "I felt pretty stupid to be in college and have no idea about computers. I barely survived that class." Lulu knew how to learn, yet for her a lack of computer skills was a disadvantage at the university.

Why is it important for students like Lulu to have access to and knowledge of computers? Numerous studies such as What Work Requires of Schools (Department of Labor, 1991), the Falling through the Net series (Department of Commerce, 1995, 1998, 1999, 2000), Building a Workforce for the Information Economy (National Academy, 2001), and "Preparing Future Technology Users" (Granger & Lippert, 1998) posit that computer skills are increasingly required to enter the workforce. In fact, Gail Hawisher and Cynthia Selfe (2004) maintained, "Today, if students cannot write to the screen--if they cannot design, author, analyze, and interpret material on the Web and in other digital environments--they may be incapable of functioning effectively as literate citizens in a growing number of social spheres" (p. 642). More and more often, the working world requires computer skills.

Research Design

The research project I designed, which took place during the 2000-2001 school year at the University of Massachusetts at Amherst, emphasized the importance of listening to students. In order to encourage the input of students, the project was composed of a survey as well as the writings of the students enrolled in a special course. The survey was given to one hundred thirty students taking first-year composition in a computer lab and was designed to establish a wider view of students' uses of and feelings for computers. The quantitative questions were analyzed using the SPSS software system, while qualitative questions were analyzed inductively. After compiling the findings I returned to each of the classes that participated in the survey to share the results and ask for additional feedback, which helped me in designing the next component of the study, the collaborative research course.

Eleven students ranging from first-year to senior completed the course entitled "Writing and Technology: Mapping the Terrain." The class explored computers, composition, and computer culture through writing, research, and discussion. The students (all of whom signed Initial and Final Consent forms indicating their willingness to participate in the project) contributed their reading responses and computer literacy narratives, which were analyzed using inductive analysis as described by Patton (1990), Taylor and Bogdan (1998), and Goetz and LeCompte (1984). The students, though not ethnically diverse (one self-identified as African-American), were diverse in age, background, and opinion. They were furthermore active participants in the course, helping to shape our focus and curriculum. And while generalizations certainly can't be drawn from such a small, homogeneous group, this sampling does demonstrate that individual students can speak eloquently about their experiences with computers and the digital divide.

Findings

When I began to examine the results of the survey, I was surprised that many of the students were very concerned about teachers presuming computer literacy and asked teachers to be aware of students' various skill levels with computers and teach accordingly. One student warned that instructors "should not assume that every single person knows how to use a computer because there are lots of international students who do not know how to use computers since it is not widely used in their country." Another said simply, "some people aren't good with computers," a sentiment echoed by many. To assist those who weren't familiar with computers, students requested that teachers be "knowledgeable" and "make sure everyone knows what they are doing ... so people don't get lost." Of course the students who responded to the survey were taking their writing course in a computer lab, which undoubtedly influenced their responses, quite possibly making them more conscious of their computer skills (or lack thereof). Yet I wanted to know more. Why were these students concerned about instructors assuming computer literacy? Where did their fears originate? To help answer these questions in more detail I turned to the students who participated in the "Writing and Technology" course.

Ana, a first-year student from Arlington, Massachusetts, didn't have access to computers growing up and came to the university without any computer skills. She suggested:

   I would recommend everyone to have a computer in the households,
   because computers are everywhere now and we all at some point
   in our life are going to use them ... In a large society like this
   there are not to many people who can afford a computer, so
   therefore it is difficult in some cases for youngsters to get used
   to them.

Ana indicated that computers were "everywhere" and hoped that every household would have one so that young people could learn to use them. She further suggested the difficulties for "youngsters to get used to" computers if they lacked monetary resources. Ana also had concerns about her future, stating, "I would like to become more knowledgeable with computers as I grow in life and in the future. I find that computer technology is becoming so powerful and that I would like to be on the same level as people are in this world." Though Ana had gained some computer knowledge, she understood computer expertise as linked to power, and therefore wanted more knowledge in order to reach "the same level" as others.

Naj, an African-American first-year student, sensed that the "digital divide" was a major factor in her own history:

   What I notice about my story is that it's a typical story of a
   first encounter with computers from a child that grew up in a
   home that wasn't wealthy and from a working
   class family ... I couldn't afford a computer growing up ... Always
   wanting one but not being able to afford it was my major problem so
   people might feel sympathy for me.

Naj noted that her story was "typical" for working class families, suggesting that many others shared her challenges. While Naj didn't lack motivation to learn about computers, her family's resources limited her access. Based on her experiences, Naj speculated:

   I think that computers will play a major role in the future because
   of the way it's taking over in our society. One can find computers
   everywhere they go. If I wish to pursue a job in economics I will
   for sure work with computers. Not having computer knowledge could
   affect ones chance to get a good job in our society. I don't think
   it's a good idea that computers are such a big deal in our society
   now and how they can affect one from getting a good job.

Having struggled to gain the computer literacy necessary to succeed in school, Naj expressed frustration that those without the means to afford new technologies could be shut out of a "good job."

Bob, an upper-class student who planned on becoming a lawyer, also made connections between his experiences and larger society, but he felt puzzled about what to do about issues of access:

   I grew up in ... a fairly well off suburb. I have always had access
   to computers, and I know people who have really not had the
   opportunity to deal with computers until they got to college ... It
   would be nice for everyone to have the same opportunities, but at
   the same time, it is not fair for the wealthy to subsidize it. We
   do not live in communism, we live in a society where it is possible
   for people to work their way to the top, and this system means that
   everyone has an opportunity.

Bob indicated concern that many lacked access, but suggested that in a capitalist society the "have-nots" must "work their way to the top." An interesting division marks Bob's thinking--while inequity troubled him, he demonstrated unwillingness to shoulder any responsibility for those in lower classes. Early in the statement, Bob noted that people don't have the same opportunities, but later argued, "this system means that everyone has an opportunity." Bob relied on the "American dream" to solve his dilemma.

Students like Ana and Naj made the most of their "opportunities," succeeding at the university despite a lack of access to computers, yet I wonder about the students I didn't interview, the students who might have gotten lost along the way. Of course the sample population I worked with was quite small, and large-scale generalizations shouldn't be drawn from such a narrow sample, yet this research inspired me rethink my approach to computers in the classroom.

Conclusion

I began this project asking what my students knew about computers and how they felt about using them in class. I admit that, perhaps conditioned by the idea that "young people" are inherently technologically savvy, prior to conducting this research I had assumed that the majority of students having "grown up" with computer technologies would be at the very least computer literate, if not computer wizards. Yet the results demonstrated that these students' experiences and attitudes differed greatly--while some were highly skilled computer users, many of those I spoke with entered college with little computer experience. Furthermore, the students I worked with asserted that socioeconomic class could play a large part in determining a student's access to and subsequent competence with computers. At institutions with diverse student populations from various economic backgrounds, this lack of access and experience is particularly a concern. Several students indicated that a lack of experience with computers had disadvantaged them when they entered college, and were concerned that this deficit could further hinder them when seeking employment.

I'm not advocating that it is any one instructor's responsibility to teach the fundamentals of working with computers. However, based on these results, I am advocating that we listen to our students, some of whom don't know how to use computers, and work on building an awareness of different levels of computer literacy into our pedagogy. For example, whether I'm teaching in a computer lab or in a traditional classroom, when I go over the syllabus I provide information on where students can find computer assistance. Sometimes I'll announce that I'll be in a computer lab for a few hours should they have questions. Most students disregard my announcement, but often a few students do come in for extra help. I ask then, that we be aware and consider computer literacy in our pedagogies, helping our students to find the assistance with and access to computers they need to be successful.

References

Barber, Margaret, Sullivan, Laura, & Walker, Janice. (1997). "Body, identity, and access: Diversity and networked environments." Computers and Composition, 14.2,163-67.

Falling through the net: A survey of the "have nots" in rural and urban America. (1995). Washington: U.S. Dept. of Commerce.

Falling through the net II. (1998). Washington: U.S. Department of Commerce.

Falling through the net: Toward digital inclusion. (1999). Washington: U.S. Department of Commerce.

Falling through the net: Toward digital inclusion. (2000). Washington : U.S. Department of Commerce, 2000.

Goetz, Judith & LeCompte, Margaret. (1984). Ethnography and qualitative design in educational research. New York: Academic Press.

Granger, Mary J. & Lippert, Susan. (1998). "Preparing future technology users." Journal of End User Computing, 10(3), 27-31,

Hawisher, Gail, & Selfe, Cynthia with Moraski, Brittney & Pearson, Melissa. (2004). Becoming literate in the information age: Cultural ecologies and the literacies of technology. College composition and communication, 55.4, 642-692.

Moran, Charles. (1999). "Access: The 'A' word in technology studies." In GailHawisher and Cynthia L. Selfe (Eds.), Passions, pedagogies, and 21st century technologies (pp. 205-220). Logan, UT: Utah State University Press,

National Research Council (2001). Building a workforce for the information economy. (2001). Washington D.C.: National Academy Press.

Olson, Charles P. (1987). "Who computes?" In David W. Livingstone (Ed.), Critical pedagogy and cultural power (pp. 179-204). South Hadley: Bergin & Garvey.

Patton, Michael. (1990). Qualitative evaluation and research methods. Newbury Park: Sage.

Reynolds, Thomas J., & Lewis, Charles R. (1997). "The changing topography of computer access for composition students." Computers and Composition, 14.2, 269-278.

Singleton, Solveig, & Mast, Lucas. (2000). "How does the empty glass fill?: A modernphilosophy of the digital divide." Educause review. Retrieved February, 25, 2002, from <http://www.educause.edu/pub/er/erm00/erm006.html>

Taylor, Steven & Bogdan, Robert. (1998). Introduction to qualitative research methods. New York: John Wiley.

US Department of Labor. (1991). What work requires of schools: A SCANS Report for America 2000. Washington D.C.: US Government Printing Office.

Yau, Ray. (1999). "Technology in K-12 public schools: What are the equity issues?" Equity Review. Retrieved February 25, 2002, from <www.maec.org>.

Endnotes

[1] The students in the "Writing and Technology" course, including Lulu, Ana, Naj, Bob and Charlotte, all chose their own pseudonyms. I am grateful to these students as well as the students who participated in the survey for allowing me to share their words.

Susan Kirtley, Western Oregon University

Susan Kirtley, Ph.D., teaches at Western Oregon University.