Leisure well being among adolescent groups: time, choices and self-determination.

How do children and adolescents use their time? Based on a report from the Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development (1994, p.7), 42 percent of a youth's waking hours is spent as discretionary time. How is that time used? Is it potentially a risk" factor or an opportunity for youth?

The well being of adolescents is associated with choices made during discretionary time. To "hang out" may be an indicator of a lifestyle attitude deplete of leisure awareness and the ability to assert responsibility for making positive time and healthful attitude decisions. According to Smith (1991), "Participation in organized recreation provides for the constructive use of free time and develops skills for the management of discretionary time and thereby reduces the need for, and the costs of, providing other governmental and social services that deal with the management of antisocial behaviors after they occur" (Smith as cited in Witt and Crompton, 1996).

The times when youth seem to make the poorest choices related to time use is when they are not in school. Three critical time blocks were recognized by Witt and Crompton (1996) in the themes which emerged from a February 1995 Colloquium held in Fort Worth, Texas on "The Challenge of Shaping the Future: Recreation Programs that Work for At-Risk Youth," sponsored by the American Academy of Park and Recreation Administration, the National Recreation and Park Association, and the Department of Recreation, Park, and Tourism Sciences at Texas A & M University. The three critical blocks of time recognized were as follows: after school (and teacher training days); summer; and evening/late night (Witt and Crompton, 1996).

Leisure planning and time management are important concerns related to overall well being and quality of life for adolescents. Yet, time management is a work concept (Leitner and Leitner, 1996) and does not often include aspects of locus of control and self determination. An adolescent's ability to perceive real decision-making within structured time is a challenge to leisure service providers. In addition, some people are highly motivated and work more effectively in structured situations. Structure is potentially less threatening than facing large blocks of unobligated time.

One consideration related to structuring time, however, is that youth have typically been put into structured programs designed by someone else. Youth need to have more opportunity to provide input into the planning of organized recreation programs in order to make them relevant to their needs and attractive for them to participate. Some recreation programs are offered based on tradition (or perceived needs) rather than actual youth needs or interests. An example of this occurrence is reflected in the following comment by an adolescent: "It's not fun to be a good kid," remarked a gang leader after signing up for an organized recreation program (Witt and Crompton, 1996). All too often, recreation program offerings fail to meet youth's needs for stimulation, excitement, fun, and challenge, as youth define it.

In light of these and other failings in the attempt to meet the leisure needs of adolescents, it might be useful to turn our attention more closely to the basic developmental needs of adolescents. Concepts which may prove to be useful to the leisure field regarding adolescent development have been articulated in research edited by Worell and Danner (1989b). Given the research which has demonstrated the important connections between self-determination, choice, perceived control and freedom, and social support as these factors contribute to one's health and well being (Langer and Rodin, 1976; Deci and Ryan, 1987; Coleman and Iso-Ahola, 1993), it follows that related skills which advance these attributes might be worth inculcating in youth. Worell and Danner (1989a; 1989b) provide some insights related to assisting the development of adolescents into responsible adults by crafting and exposing them to opportunities for problem-solving, the identification of choices, and decision making.

The Contemporary Context of Adolescence

The Adolescent Community

One of the conundrums of the adolescent period is that it tends to be a social institution which artificially separates youth from the main context of life (Lasch, 1985; Lipsett, 1980). Adolescents may confront this period of their life as one demanding little in the way of responsibility, beset with numerous restrictions, and confounded by a state of legal limbo that keeps them dependent upon adult gatekeepers to gain access to services and resources (Worell and Danner, 1989a). As youth confront the multifaceted changes in their lives, during the transition period from childhood to adulthood, there is a need for them to find a balance between their own needs and the needs of society. Adolescents may lack a sense of direct control in the various arenas of their life (e.g., physical, social, emotional, psychological). Each problem-solving experience provides an opportunity for individuals to exhibit choices and in turn to develop a better sense of personal autonomy, vital to attaining successful adult roles.

Miller (1989) identified the developmental tasks which need to be mastered during adolescence enroute to maturity: (a) a sense of identity; b) adjustment to body changes; (c) abstract thinking; (d) interpersonal skills; (e) autonomy; (f) a personal value system; and (g) goal setting for future career and family. Based upon the work of Bedini, Bullock and Driscoll (1993), education for leisure, as well as education for work, is another important developmental task to be mastered by adolescents. Bedini et al. (1993) examined the worth of leisure education for adolescents with mental retardation in a public school setting in North Carolina. Results indicated that involvement in a leisure education program produced positive changes in behaviors and attitudes needed by adolescents with mental retardation to make a successful transition from school to adult life. Teacher observations of these changes suggested improvements in the areas of social skills, choice making, and self esteem.

Related areas relevant to supporting the acquisition of decision-making skills in adolescents include:

(a) cognition (knowledge); (b) social relationships; (c) moral development; (d) self awareness; and (e) motivation.

The transition through adolescence should include guided experiences that shape the attainment of these skills. Decision making skills have been identified as one of the critical components necessary if adolescents are to achieve a sense of self determination (Mahon, 1994). Mahon and Bullock (1992) explored a model which promotes self instruction as a means of facilitating thoughtful, planned, and systematic decision making in leisure. While this Decision Making in Leisure (DML) model addressed the needs of adolescents with mild retardation, the issues of the relationship of decision making to self determination would seem to apply to adolescents, generally.

The Journey through Adolescence

Adolescence is a time for individuals to reflect, test themselves and the world around them, and think about their future. The Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development (1994) reported that adolescents themselves want the following from their communities: (a) involvement or contact with trusted adults; (b) more opportunities to serve their communities; (c) safe places; and (d) attractive alternatives to gangs and loneliness.

The establishment of healthy social relationships within the peer group provide adolescents with the forum to practice making decisions and receive feedback from peers, independent from adults (Danner, 1989). De Armas and Kelly (1989) have pointed out the crucial role that social skill development plays throughout the adolescent years. Youth lacking social skills tend to become "invisible" to or rejected by peers and thus often become socially sidelined, while those who have demonstrated mastery in social interaction receive a stream of positive feedback, which in turn prompts further social involvements. According to Csikszentmihalyi and Larson (1984), adults should take a greater role in the adolescent socialization process, since much of it is otherwise being shaped by peer group influence. Csikszentmihalyi and Larson advocated the establishment of challenging standards and clear-cut expectations for adolescent performance by adults (Ames and Ames, 1989). Furthermore, Csikszentmihalyi and Larson (1984) suggest that adults present themselves as examples worthy of being emulated. Motivating adolescents appears to require a focus not so much on the outward appearances of being focused and attentive (e.g., indicators of Csikszentmihalyi's "flow" state), but on qualitative indicators of motivation such as the meanings of adolescents' engagements, how they perceive themselves, and the contribution of these various indicators to self-worth (Ames and Ames, 1989).

In addition to the social realm, efforts to enhance moral reasoning skills in youth are integral to the development of ethical decision-making abilities (Lapsley, Enright and Serlin, 1989). In Suls' (1989) discussion on self identity and self awareness in adolescents, he emphasized the significant role which self identity development plays in the adolescent, about which all other youth decision making is centered. Perhaps that which has largely been overlooked is "the leisure self" as one aspect of the sense of identity formation in adolescents. Mobily (1992) argued that leisure valuing is a reoccurring developmental theme throughout life as one develops an "identity" with leisure (time). The idea of fostering this aspect of leisure identity development rather early on in adolescence has lifelong implications for individuals, since as Mobily suggested, "...it would appear that those able to acquire value from leisure in more varied ways are the most adaptable people, less constrained by the physical, social, and psychological encumbrances that restrain actualization of the leisure side of the human self."

Transitions to Adulthood

Adolescence is a period, much like a maze, which not only must be negotiated through, but also entails making a transition to adulthood. To make this leap, youth must face head-on life career choices, sex role attitudes and behaviors, and sex role decisions as they relate to individual well-being (Boxer, Levinson and Petersen, 1989; Worell, 1989; Worell and Danner, 1989a). Relatedly, Grossman's (1992) work points out the critical need for leisure service providers to make available inclusive, non-threatening, and supportive social environments and educational programs aimed at reducing the tide of fear related to discrimination, stigmatization, or prejudice that adolescents face upon discovery that their sexual identity and orientation is outside of the so-called norm.

The Role of Parents, Teachers, Leisure Professionals, and Leisure Education

Assisting with the Decision-Making Process

Adults serving in the roles of parents, teachers, coaches, or leisure professionals are potentially positioned to be key facilitators of the decision-making process for adolescents. From this vantage point, adults may construct a suitable social milieu in which the following occur: outside supervision is relaxed; gradients of stimulation, challenge, and advanced information are supplied; exposure to appropriate social models is provided; and a commitment to establishing meaningful and desirable life goals and values is nurtured (Worell and Danner, 1989a; Mahon and Bullock, 1992; Mahon, 1994).

Encouragement Facilitates Effective Problem-Solving Processes and

Satisfying Decisions

Youth need adults who have the capabilities to provide social and cognitive encouragement, which serve to facilitate effective problem-solving processes and result in satisfying decisions and outcomes. Some youth, however, miss out on this support when the family network structure is not intact. If this support is not available from the home environment, then where else may it come from?

Loneliness was one concern identified by youth themselves (Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development, 1994). This perspective does not simply reflect the perceived needs of adolescents by researchers and service providers, but as the Carnegie Council (1994) report affirms, youth themselves request meaningful involvements with adult role models. Certainly leisure service programs provide an opportunity for adult-youth interaction, modeling, problem solving, and decision making.

Unfortunately, in the absence of appropriate and desirable adult models of standards, teens may turn to alternatives which are shaped by media manipulation and peer pressure influences. Teen digression from appropriate adult modeling is often evident in random pleasure-seeking activities or withdrawal (Worell and Danner, 1989a). Amid much of the prevailing negative portrayal of adolescence, we need to keep in perspective, that most adolescents face futures with confidence and commitment (Herzog and Bachman, 1982).

We Can Nurture Developing Adolescents in Leisure

Leisure provides a unique forum to reach and nurture adolescents in terms of the subject content of "the worthy use of leisure," as well as directing attention to the value of each individual. One critical area (within a leisure context) that may assist youth in making an "optimal transition" from adolescence to adulthood involves the development of decision-making skills (Worell and Danner, 1989a). One possible avenue to achieve this may entail designing experiences where one learns to make effective decisions in relation to one's physical, social, and future self through leisure opportunities. An important principle can be emphasized to adolescents related to the decision making process: the ever-present nature and range of choices in life. A particular point of focus in leisure education might include the notion that life involves a series of choices, and it requires evaluating the consequences of alternative choices, in order to select the most satisfying outcomes. Of equal potential value would be the part of the adolescent decision-making focus that could also address how to cope with lessons resulting from outcomes of failed decisions or decisions which were not initially satisfying (Worell and Danner, 1989a).

Social Contexts of Adolescence

Opportunities for Freedom and Responsibility (i.e., Risk and Challenge)

By utilizing the decision-making approach to adolescence, skills in self direction are encouraged, along with a concomitant expansion of opportunities for freedom and responsibility. Adolescents may make gains in knowing how to set reasonable goals, problem solve and consider other possible options, and make meaningful and relevant choices.

Influence of Social Factors

Worell and Danner (1989a) point out that two main levels of social development factors bear upon adolescent functioning: the proximal and distal levels. Adolescents wrestle with the values of society, parents, and peer groups at the proximal level of social development. Those adolescents who are given opportunities to receive explanations of rules, to test their independence, do some role modeling, develop information-seeking attitudes and information-making decisions when there are conflicting polarities and discrepant points of view, tend to emerge with a heightened sense of autonomy, self esteem, as well as both freedom and responsibility (Baumrind, 1975; Martin, 1975; Worell and Danner, 1989a). The decision making approach has the potential to mediate some of the risky behaviors (e.g., socially generated substance abuse; sexual behavior) that adolescents confront in their free time by infusing the attitude of responsible ownership of decisions and their outcomes.

Much of what is learned by youth is beyond the control of parents, teachers and recreation professionals. Perhaps the best preparation for coping in a world that we cannot fully control is to consider and anticipate one's possible options. One important task will be to help youth recognize that decisions regarding life are in a state of flux (Baltes, Reese and Lipsett, 1980).

Decision-Making Limitations

Worell and Danner (1989a) point out that in addition to the strengths of the decision making approach to adolescence, decision-making also has its limitations. First, adolescents have to be taught how to make good decisions, and need a supportive and nurturing environment to support that effort. Obviously, the ideal situation will not always prevail and thus in these situations, adolescents will not have the necessary skills to apply the processes of decision making and autonomy to their lives. Second, recreation/leisure departments or service providers may run into resistance when they attempt to foster intrinsic motivation toward inquiry and inculcate independent thinking skills in youth, which run the course of conflicting with communities which value and reflect certain (more limited versions) traditions of "truth." Here youth aligned agencies and advocates must negotiate through and find a point of balance from which to provide guidance and encouragement to youth in their developmental journey towards maturity, independence, and responsibility, without antagonizing the community and its' social norms and beliefs. Third, some youth may not have the same level of access to the decision-making model due to differences in gender, economics, ethnicity, family support, and social worlds. Certainly, open recognition of these apparent constraints provide youth with real life opportunities to problem-solve how these obstacles might be confronted and transcended. Adolescents thus have the potential to be exposed to challenging, direct learning experiences, and gain valuable coping skills for life in the process.

Shifting Social Contexts; Enduring Lifespan Development Concerns

We must simultaneously consider the enduring aspects of individual development and the more frequent changes in social milieu of family, school, and wider social environments that affect adolescent development (i.e., the shifting social context of popular culture such as dress, music, drugs, and other "in vogue" fads upon development of an individual), with an emphasis on the former versus the later. But how do recreation professionals help adolescents cross the bridge from youth to adulthood? Do we simply accept that adolescence is a trying rite of passage which must be endured? How do we find ways of increasing a successful transition when there are so many differences in individual adolescent needs to be met? Some existing exemplary efforts may serve as some examples which accommodate adolescent developmental needs with their need to be stretched and challenged, and society's need to expect more from the adolescent versus the child.

The educational/service model that Wigginton (1985) created, through the Foxfire Project in Appalachia, provided adolescents with a number of significant growth opportunities: to explore their heritage in an engaging intergenerational approach; to confront issues within their home community where time stood relatively still, in contrast to issues their generation was increasingly drawn to in the fast-paced world beyond their culture; and to document the traditions and oral history from their culture which might otherwise have gone unnoticed or been lost to society at-large. In establishing this experiential model, Wigginton discovered a way to channel the inherent searching and restless drive of adolescence in a positive way by engaging them in activities which necessitated that they go beyond themselves, looking to the needs of others and the broader community.

A Sign of Maturity: Responsible Actions

During adolescence, strides need to be made which begin to bridge the immaturity of childhood with the maturity of adulthood. Facilitating demonstrations of social responsibility is one way to nurture the development of maturity in individuals. In our highly mobile society, a sense of community, attachment and connection with others has tended to fall by the wayside. The high incidence of loss in geographically proximate nuclear and extended family members, coupled with a frequent turnover rate of neighbors and friends, is a situation, however, which does not assist youth in establishing close, caring, and responsible relationships across the generational spectrum.

The road to maturity requires effort. Learning to assist others is a route toward maturity, in that youth learn to show genuine caring about the growth of others (Worell & Danner, 1989a). Service learning program models related to leisure provide another potentially valuable avenue to inculcate a measure of growth in adolescents beyond self-centeredness and towards morally responsible actions to others.

Research Needs Regarding Adolescents

Several areas of needed research concerning adolescents may be identified (Worell and Danner, 1989a). One area includes: developing a better understanding of how adolescents think, and how their social and educational experiences impact upon cognitive processes versus how adolescents react to superficial trends or fads. A second area of needed study involves looking at what adolescents are really like, in terms of their social awareness, for example, beyond preconceived notions of the so-called "idealism" associated with this age. Adelson (1975) referred to the notion of adolescent idealism in mythical terms somewhat akin to pursuit of the Loch Ness monster: "a search that may tell us more about what we want to believe about adolescents than about what they are really like." A third suggestion for needed research about adolescents is concerned with moving beyond the cross-sectional and fragmented nature of previous studies, toward more indepth, long-term, and cross-disciplinary studies.

Suggestions and Resources For Practitioners Working With Adolescents

Adolescents today need to have more opportunities that offer real choices and opportunities to risk, test themselves, and learn who they are in the process. This may necessitate a paradigm shift away from offering just "fun, games and sports" types of activities, to be replaced with leisure engagements which offer the possible attainment of meaningful developmental outcomes. This includes programs that test individual roles in preparation for adulthood, and expose youth to new life experiences and places. While involvement in sports has played an important role in adolescent life, leisure offerings which extend the range of appeal to a wider segment of youth might enhance both the breadth as well as the depth of youth development possibilities.

Along this line of suggestions, several existing programs may serve as models from which to generate other innovative program variations. Projects, Inc. of Camden, Maine was founded in 1975 by Perry Gates in response to the need he saw for community-based experiential learning and problem-solving efforts among adolescents. A segment of Gates' efforts is devoted to assisting local high schools in developing community-oriented in-service learning programs which are related to school curricula. School-based content and community service can be directly linked to provide an interesting mix of tangible learning opportunities for adolescents. As Gates commented on our situation today, "People - the young, adults, the elderly - have a sense of alienation from the world around them. They want to be connected - to one another, to the community, to their politicians, to newspapers. People are reaching out in a variety of ways because that is what we're made of" (Marsh, 1994).

The Illinois Association of Park Districts (IAPD) provides another model of innovative programs and community partnerships which seek to reach youth in meaningful and constructive ways. Ted Flickinger (1996), Executive Director of IAPD, and Jim Ryan (1996), Illinois Attorney General, reported joint efforts between the IAPD and the Illinois Attorney General's Office to address the significant problems which youth face. To this end, joint efforts to date include the distribution of grant monies to seven Illinois park districts targeted for youth-at-risk program offerings, and a Spring 1996 summit entitled "Mobilizing Communities for Youth: Partnerships and Park District Programs That Work." This summit brought together 350 leaders from a variety of positions in school districts, law enforcement, park districts, cities and local government, who are concerned with enhancing the quality of life and opportunities for youth. Continued efforts are planned to promote the startup of other youth programs and community partnerships/coalitions, and to highlight successful programs for youth through educational sessions and roundtables at future summits.

A youth program developed in Phoenix, Arizona serves as another model which was responsive to adolescent needs for structured activities and safe havens to socialize. This program center originally was made available adjacent to a high school in the early 1980s. The program concept was expanded in the mid-1980s into a mobile outreach service to meet teen needs on a wider basis throughout the city at satellite centers, such as malls schools, and parks. At this level, the program became known as the "City Streets Program" (Peters, 1996). By the 1990s, this program was available in all areas of Phoenix. The program continued to evolve during the 1990s with the recognition of the special programming needs of at

Research Into Action: Leisure Well Being for Adolescents

Introduction

Almost half of the waking hours of youth is spent as free time. According to the literature reviewed in this month's Research Update, the well being of adolescents is associated choices made during this time. Yet, all to often, recreation program offerings fail to meet youth's needs for stimulation, excitement, fun and challenge, as youth themselves define it.

Impact of the Research

The contemporary context of adolescence is reviewed according to the basic theme that adolescence is a social institution that artificially separates youth from the main course of life. Therefore, three broad recommendations from the research are made: 1) adolescents should be helped to acquire decision-making skills 2) the establishment of healthy social relationships within the peer group is crucial, and 3) making a successful transition to adulthood is the major development task.

How to Use This Research

Leisure education programs for adolescents should include guided experiences and self-instruction focused on developing a positive "identity" with free time. How should leisure service agencies accomplish this?

1. Provide inclusive, non-threatening and supportive social environments.

2. Enable meaning involvements with adult role models through mentoring programs.

3. Facilitate demonstrations of social responsibility, such as those provided by community-oriented service learning programs.

4. Expose youth to new life experience and places associated with adult roles.

Appropriate services by leisure agencies may necessitate a major shift away from offering just "fun, game and sport" types of activities, toward leisure engagements that are focused on meaningful developmental outcomes.

For More Information

Witt, P.A. and Crompton, J.L. (Eds.) (1996). Recreation Programs That Work for At-Risk Youth: The Challenge of Shaping The Future. State College, PA: Venture Publishing.

Worell, J. And Danner, F. (Eds.) (1989). The Adolescent As Decision Maker: Applications to Development and Education. San Diego: Academic Press. risk youth, which resulted in the convening of a Youth At-Risk Task Force, and consequently its recommendation to create a City Streets/At-Risk Youth Division. Further information on this program model and others across the nation may be found in the resource edited by Witt and Crompton (1996).

An additional resource for potential youth program development includes the AmeriCorps. This is a national service initiative aimed at meeting the needs of youth through the provision of local community service program grants. State level commissions which administer the program may be consulted through state government agencies.

The above mentioned models provide leisure service agencies with the potential to expand present programs to include activities and experiences which focus on the developmental needs of youth. In a society where increasing problems and possibilities arise daily regarding the future of youth, understanding the developmental issues associated with adolescence should become a required aspect of study and research for all leisure service providers.

References

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