Leisure and the elderly.

Recognition of the growing older population has generated increased research interest in this area. As greater numbers live two and three decades after retirement, the concern for quality of life in later years has become more pressing. Since Havighurst's early studies in the 1950s, researchers have examined the link between leisure involvement and successful aging. Earlier research has well documented a relationship between leisure involvement and life satisfaction of older adults, yet little research has been done to investigate the motives for participation or how leisure participation contributes to well-being (Coleman, 1993). Several recent studies have examined the contribution of leisure to quality of life in greater depth. This column will address issues of leisure for older adults who are living independently.

Successful Aging

Lawton (1994) surveyed 828 participants in Elderhostel programs to examine the relationship between psychological well-being and activity participation. Results indicate that those individuals who participated more frequently and in a greater variety of activities experienced greater psychological well-being and contentment. This provides additional support to earlier evidence that leisure involvement and life satisfaction in older adults are closely linked. However, Lawton suggests that Elderhostelers are atypical of older adults because of their lifelong practice of leisure involvement and overall positive perception of leisure. They experience few constraints to their leisure pursuits as they enjoy good health and have the financial resources to maintain their leisure interests.

In contrast, an investigation of the importance of leisure to life satisfaction of 618 older female retirees revealed negative attitudes toward developing new hobbies and other leisure activities (Cutler Riddick and Stewart, 1994). In general, the women reported low life satisfaction, although they did acknowledge that leisure enhanced their lives. Women overall who intended to increase their leisure repertoires reported greater life satisfaction as did Anglo women with greater leisure activity participation. Negative attitudes toward leisure can be explained in part by fair or poor health as reported by the majority of the women. This is consistent with Iso-Ahola, Jackson and Dunn's (1994) finding that people who are not healthy are less likely to start new activities and more likely to cease participation. Thus, perceived health is a commonly reported constraint to leisure participation.

Other constraints that limit leisure participation include lack of transportation, money, and partners (Losier, Bourque and Vallerand, 1993). A survey of 102 elderly Canadians reveals that when leisure constraints are perceived, leisure motivation is undermined. However, when subjects perceived leisure opportunities, a domino effect occurred. Losier's et al. model suggests that leisure opportunities enhance leisure motivation, which contributes to satisfaction, which in turn, leads to increased leisure participation. The more activity is engaged in for fun or the pleasure experienced, the more positive the leisure satisfaction. Less leisure satisfaction would deter further leisure participation.

Perceived leisure opportunities are closely linked to perceived leisure control. If individuals do not perceive that desirable leisure experiences are available, there is little sense of control over leisure. Increased leisure opportunities create choices for participants. Kurtz and Propst (1991) found that older persons who chose to be actively involved in socially-oriented and self-rewarding programs reported high levels of perceived leisure control. Individuals who experienced high perceived leisure control also tended to report high levels of life satisfaction. Additionally, individuals who perceived greater freedom in their leisure participation appeared to have greater resources to cope with the stresses of life. Perceived leisure freedom acted as a buffer to reduce the negative impact of stress on health (Coleman, 1993).

Searle, Mahon, Iso-Ahola, Sdrolias, and van Dyck (1995) also examined the role of perceived leisure control in life satisfaction. They argue that perceived control and freedom are essential to physical and psychological health; and that perceived leisure control carries over to perceived control in a broader sense.

Leisure education is promoted as a means of increasing perceived leisure control. Individuals who were experiencing constraints to continued participation in their favorite leisure activities participated in a leisure education program. One of the essential elements of the program was the provision of opportunities to become involved in leisure activities. Participants experienced enhanced perceived leisure control and leisure competence, as well as increased life satisfaction. Another possible way of maintaining perceived leisure control may result from the ability to adapt their leisure behavior to their circumstances while maintaining its meaning. Lawton (1993) suggests this may occur through the transition from more physically active leisure to those that are less demanding, yet satisfying.

Social interaction and participation in group activities contribute to life satisfaction as well. In fact, many people engage in leisure solely for its social benefits (Caldwell and Smith, 1988). Hong and Duff (1994) interviewed 233 independently living widows in retirement communities to determine factors contributing to their life satisfaction. Their findings indicate that the strongest predictors of life satisfaction were frequency of participation in group activities and frequency of interacting with friends in the community.

The research discussed to this point has provided strong support for the relationship between leisure and successful aging. leisure activities for older adults provide opportunities to experience novelty and diversity. Leisure also provides a means to be active and interactive. Individuals experience a sense of freedom and control in making decisions about their leisure participation. Involvement in freely chosen activities yields pleasure and satisfaction that can help the elderly cope with life's stresses. The leisure experience is diminished when constraints such as limited money, transportation, perceived opportunities, partners and poor health are not overcome.

Definitions and Perceptions

Even with greater knowledge concerning leisure and the elderly, there is growing recognition that terminology has limited study in this area. One of common frustrations in research on leisure and older adults has been the conceptualization of leisure and recreation among study participants. McPherson (1991) suggests that older adults may not identify with these terms because of limited exposure to formal recreation and leisure activities in earlier life. Additionally, factors such as gender, ethnicity, education, marital status and socio-economic status influence perceptions and values that individuals attach to leisure. The following studies have a common focus in that they attempt to elicit older adults' definitions, perceptions, and experiences of leisure in their own terms.

Mobily and Bedford (1993) examined the meaning of play among older adults. Their concern was that elderly people have diverse perceptions of leisure, and that until researchers understand leisure as the elderly define it, they will have limited understanding of how individuals adapt to retirement. Mobily and Bedford asked 255 older adults to write down all the words that came to mind when they read the word "play." Play was used because it was felt that the group would more readily identify with the term play than with leisure. The group most commonly defined play as fun or enjoyment. Play was best defined as "an enjoyable, voluntary activity often associated with a younger period in the life cycle" (p. 214). This would suggest that for this group, play was not readily associated with the later stages of life.

Wilhite, Sheldon, and Jekubovich-Fenton (1994) used in-depth interviews and self-initiated tape recordings of eight older widows living alone to determine how they defined and experienced leisure. Although the women used the term leisure to refer to specific experiences, leisure was not easy for them to describe. Leisure was not viewed as a separate aspect of life, but intertwined with all of life's aspects. Leisure was incorporated in daily routines such as baking and cleaning, caring for others, writing letters, visiting, and reading. The women strongly identified leisure with the freedom to do what they wanted, when they wanted, and how they wanted.

Even so, there was a perceived obligation to be busy and not sit idlely. The majority of their leisure occurred in the home, at least partly because of constraints such as monetary limitations, safety concerns and health.

Henderson and Rannells (1988) conducted in-depth interviews with older farm women in the Midwest to discover the meaning the women attached to work and leisure. They also found that work and leisure were integrated, rather than separate experiences. A sense of leisure was derived from feelings of pleasure, fulfillment, and satisfaction, and could occur while work was carried out. Because leisure was perceived to be interwoven with work and community obligations, it could occur without the presence of free time. The women could not easily define or discusss the concept of leisure as it is commonly used.

McCormick (1994) described similar difficulties in his interviews of older adults in rural communities. When he asked individuals about their recreation or leisure participation, he got very little response. In an attempt to find words that the study population would identify with, McCormick used the words free time in place of recreation and leisure. Subjects were able to identify with this term, but perceived free time its very limited. Free time occurred only when tasks were completed, however, play was often integrated with work in that the reward for shucking corn might be a dance. Work received much greater value than free time.

Older adults in Britain report the same intertwining of leisure with all of life's stages and events. Very happy individuals were those who had continued their leisure involvements and developed new leisure skills that brought them great satisfaction.

Many of their leisure interests were essentially the same as they were earlier in life. Individuals with the fewest leisure pursuits were the most discontented with their lives (Thompson, 1992).

Allen and Chin-Sang (1990) asked 30 older, black women to look at a seven-day calendar and discuss the activities in which they participated during the previous week that the women would classify as leisure, and those that they would not classify as leisure. As discussed in several of the previous studies, work and leisure were intertwined. Free time and leisure were scarce until they became older.

The women considered leisure to be free time, yet continued to discuss it in the context of work and service. Free time brought with it freedom to relax or work as they chose. Leisure was perceived as freedom from the need to work. It was also viewed as a means of self-expression.

Implications

As described above (Allen and Chin-Sang, 1990; Henderson and Rannells, 1988; McCormick, 1994; Wilhite et al., 1994), for many older adults, free time was in short supply. The work ethic is deeply engrained and the thought of wasting time is abhorrent. The findings suggest that the terms recreation and leisure are outside the working vocabulary of many older adults, however, the experiences of recreation and leisure are not. Leisure is viewed as part of fife itself, rather than as something that can be separated from it. Work, family, community service, leisure and other life responsibilities are tightly interwoven to create for many a full and meaningful life. Older adults who were less satisfied tended to perceive less control over their lives because of constraints such as money, health and safety.

If leisure experiences are to be meaningful to older adults when the structure of work is removed, they should incorporate everyday aspects of life (Wilhite et al., 1994). This may include opportunities for involvement in community service, volunteering, or other work-like activities (Mobily and Bedford, 1993) that legitimize free time and leisure (McCormick, 1994). These activities can also create a common bond of interests that serve to facilitate social interaction among participants. Intergenerational programming, with real or surrogate family members, reinforces a sense of family and connectedness (Wilhite et al., 1994).

Programs that enable participants to make choices, feel useful and competent can enhance perceived leisure control (Kurtz and Propst, 1991) which contributes to life satisfaction (Searle et al., 1995). A leisure education program that provides opportunities for individuals to engage in activities of their choice can be effective in enhancing perceived leisure control (Searle et al., 1995). Wilhite et al. (1994) contend that older adults know what experiences are meaningful and satisfying, and that practitioners should seek their input in program design and offerings.

References

Allen, K.R., Chin-Sang, V. (1990). A Lifetime of Work: The Context and Meanings of Leisure for Aging Black Women. The Gerontologist, 30(6), 734-740.

Caldwell, L.L., and Smith, E.A. (1988). Leisure: An Overlooked Component of Health Promotion. Canadian Journal of Public Health, 79, S44-S48.

Coleman, D. (1993). Leisure-based Social Support, Leisure Dispositions and Health. Journal of Leisure Research, 25(4), 350-361.

Cutler Riddick, C., and Stewart, D.G. (1994). An Examination of the Life Satisfaction and Importance of Leisure in the Lives of Older Female Retirees: A Comparison of Blacks to Whites. Journal of Leisure Research, 26(1), 75-87.

Henderson, K.A. and Rannells, J.S. (1988). Farm Women and the Meaning of Work and Leisure: An Oral History Perspective. Leisure Sciences, 10, 41-50.

Hong, L.K., and Duff, R.W. (1994). Widows in Retirement Communities: The Social Context of Subjective Well-being. The Gerontologist, 34(3), 347-352.

Kurtz, M.E., and Propst, D.B. (1991). Research Note: Relationship Between Perceived Control in Leisure and Life Satisfaction: A Study of Non-institutionalized Older Persons. Leisure Studies, 10, 69-77.

Lawton, M.P. (1994). Personality and Affective Correlates of Leisure Activity Participation by Older People. Journal of Leisure Research, 26(2), 138-157.

Losier, G.F., Bourque, P.E., and Vallerand, R.J. (1993). A Motivational Model of Leisure Participation in the Elderly. Journal of Psychology, 127(2), 153-170.

McCormick, B. (1994). "People aren't together too much anymore:" Social interaction Among Rural Elderly. Journal of Park and Recreation Administration, 12(4), 47-63.

McPherson, B.D. (1991). Aging and Leisure Benefits: A Life Cycle Perspective. In B.L. Driver, P.J. Brown, and G.L. Peterson (Eds.), Benefits of Leisure (pp. 423-430).

Mobily, K.E., and Bedford, R.L. (1993). Language, Play and Work Among Elderly Persons. Leisure Studies, 12, 203-219.

Searle, M.S., Mahon, M.J., and Iso-Ahola, S.E. (1995). Enhancing a Sense of independence and Psychological Well-being Among the Elderly: A Field Experiment. Journal of Leisure Research, 27(2), 107-124.

Thompson, P. (1992). "I Don't Feel Old": Subjective Aging and the Search for Meaning in Later Life. Ageing and Society, 12, 23-47.

Wilhite, B.C., Sheldon, K., and Jekubovich-Fenton, N. (1994). Leisure in Daily Life: Older Widows Living Alone. Journal of Park and Recreation Administration, 12(4), 64-78.

K. L. Siegenthaler, Ph.D. is an assistant professor in the Department of Health, Leisure and Exercise Science at Appalachian State University.