Leisure's role in enhancing social competencies of individuals with developmental disabilities.

Legislative action has created greater opportunities for inclusion for individuals with disabilities. Inclusion implies that life's activities (e.g., communication, mobility, education, vocation, social/ recreation) should be free of environmental constraints and that equal opportunities should be available for all people, regardless of abilities or disabilities. Inclusion infers that the necessary support is provided to enable the individual with disabilities to benefit from the chosen experience in its natural setting. As positive as the Americans with Disabilities Act, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act and others have been, this legislation is not adequate to ensure full inclusion, because perceptions play important roles in how individuals are treated by others. The lack of social competencies, is in fact, the greatest barrier to full inclusion for individuals with disabilities. This is due in a large degree to associated communication deficits, as well as, the lack of social training and opportunities. A person who is competency impaired is at high risk of being seen and interpreted as being of low value. As a result of this perception, a person who is impaired in image and social value is apt to be responded to in ways that reduce their competency. Wolfensberger and Tullman (1982) recognized the importance of valued social roles for all people as a part of the "normalization movement" of the 1980s. The purpose of this column is to highlight some of the current literature about social competencies and individuals with developmental disabilities. Social role enhancement is essential to the ultimate achievement of normalization and inclusion for individuals with disabilities.

Leisure provides the social linkages throughout the lifespan. Leisure can provide opportunities to gain social competencies through play, social groups and the inherent social interaction. As Russell (1996) suggests, leisure enables children to develop appropriate skills for social interaction, cultural ritual, personal autonomy, and sex roles. A child's play becomes the learning laboratory for motor skill development, language development and initial social interaction. Teens use leisure to establish social networks and personal identity. Leisure is often the sole link of older adults to the outside world. Individuals with disabilities can experience the same growth through leisure as mainstream society. Leisure service providers have not only an opportunity but responsibility to positively impact the inclusion movement and thereby the lives of individuals with developmental disabilities.

Defining Perceived Social Competency

Perceived social competence is an individual's perception of self or another's ability to initiate, respond to, and/or maintain interactions with peers; the ability to recognize and respond to another's viewpoint or perspective; and the ability to share, cooperate and problem-solve with others (Lord, 1995). Perception is reality, both for the individual and others who perceive that individual. Individuals may perceive themselves as socially competent, yet those with whom they interact may experience social discomfort or see them as socially inept.

Stumbo (1995) stated that there is consensus among researchers that the lack of appropriate social interaction skills is a prevalent problem for many individuals with disabilities. Lack of appropriate social interaction skills may be due in part to social isolation (Coleman and Iso-Ahola, 1993; Warren and Abbeduto, 1992) or the lack of appropriate and/or effective role models. Meyer, Cole, McQuarter, and Reichle (1990) identified a series of 11 functions (e.g. joins an on-going interaction or starts a new one, manages own behavior without instruction from others, makes choices from among available and possible alternatives) that appear to be crucial in determining social competence for individuals with developmental disabilities.

These identifiable functions become potential strategies for leisure service providers to enhance social competence of individuals with developmental disabilities. Recreation Center staff can look for and encourage functions such as appropriate interaction and self-control. Additionally staff can help consumers practice appropriate social interaction scenarios via role playing before going on a field trip or outing. Staff can provide choices at all levels within a program (e.g. soliciting input from participants about what food to prepare for an event, what activity to do next, which medium to use in an art project), so as to enhance decision-making skills of individuals with developmental disabilities. Leisure education is yet another method for developing social interaction and decision-making skills.

Social structure (the norms that clue one into being a part of a social experience), the attachments, and interaction that form the foundation for sustained association with people is important for individual behavior (Stokowski and Lee, 1991). The relationships between and among individuals, as well as, the roles occupied within a social system influence personal behavior concerning social action. Breen and Haring (1991) suggest that accurate responding in a social context plays a role in changing the balance of interactions from a heavier reliance on initiations from non-disabled peers to one of more equal social participation and mutual enjoyment.

Coleman and Iso-Ahola (1993) found that the lack of social interaction intertwined with the lack of social competence. They suggested that social isolation may be the result of lack of social competence; likewise those who interact very little with others reduce their chances of developing social competence.

The role of a leisure practitioner is to help break this cycle by providing opportunities to interact in a variety of social settings, with varying social expectations, and with a diverse spectrum of people, so as to develop the necessary social competence. This should in turn lead to increased interaction.

Function and perception are the critical aspects of social interaction as it relates to individuals with mental retardation. What people know about individuals with developmental disabilities is often based upon limited knowledge or faulty perception of the individual's ability to function. However, if one interacts with an individual with developmental disabilities and observes what the individual can do, one's perceptions and expectations of the individual with developmental disabilities should change. Leisure service professionals should provide social support to individuals with developmental disabilities. This support should be reduced gradually as individuals gain more direct control of their life situations. Coleman and Iso-Ahola (1993) note that moderate social support and companionship are consistent with social competence.

Sherman, Sheldon, Harchik, Edwards, and Quinn (1992) suggested that more work is needed with regard to evaluating and promoting the generalization of social skills from the instructional setting to real life settings. Evaluation should determine the effectiveness of social skills training for people with mental retardation and their social competence in the community.

Communication has been suggested as a key element in social interaction (Dattilo and Murphy, 1991), social participation (Wachter, 1994), social attractiveness (Duran and Kelly, 1988) or social acceptance (Lillywhite and Bradley, 1969). Thus, lack of communication blocks interaction between the individual and the social environment. Most people with disabilities experience some form of communication barrier.

Abbeduto and Rosenberg (1992) recognized that communication and social skills are interrelated, and essential for school participation and life functioning. They further noted that language behaviors; of persons with mental retardation may not be conducive to the maintenance of good social relations. Individuals with developmental disabilities have more difficulty with the speaker's role or expressive communication than with the listener's role. The authors stressed that in today's highly technical society, communication competence will directly impact one's ability to get a job, which affects one's level of independence. Communication competence influences social opportunities or limitations and potentially the quality of life.

Dattilo and Murphy (1991) recognized communication as vital to social interaction, and suggested that an individual could enhance communication and social relationships by mastering basic verbal skills. Leisure service providers should focus on communication skills as they relate to leisure experiences or recreational activity. Individuals with developmental disabilities should be encouraged to use appropriate greetings. Basic communication courtesies regarding how and when to ask questions, and not interrupting should also be addressed. The importance of non-verbal skills such as gesturing, facial expressions, voice volume and pitch should be emphasized as non-verbal skills often speak louder than words.

Dattilo and Murphy further documented that communication plays a role in the satisfaction of physiological and psychological needs. Communication provides a vehicle for exploring relationships with people and objects, and serves a function in play, self-stimulation, self-regulation, and self-reinforcement.

Direct instruction in social-communicative skills for individuals with disabilities includes four components (Goldstein and Gallagher, 1992). The first component focuses on teaching the behavior through verbal instruction, modeling and role playing. Second, the individual should practice the new behavior until it is self-directed. The third component emphasizes developing evaluative skills to enable the individual to apply the new behavior in a variety of social settings. Finally, the development of self-monitoring skills should be stressed. This fourth component enables individuals to manage their behavior and to substitute alternative social behavior based on feedback from others. Additionally, training in speech act management has been suggested.

Abbeduto and Rosenberg, 1992) noted that current research efforts have begun to address the speech acts of individuals with mental retardation, on the assumption that problems in this area will limit an individual's ability to participate in social interaction, and can adversely affect how they are perceived by others.

The Role of Recreation and Leisure

Communication and social skills are keys to successful educational, work and leisure experiences. Chalip, Thomas and Voyle (1992) reported that persons who become more involved in sports and recreation developed larger networks of friends, received more social support, and were more likely to socialize with others.

Malik, Lee and Hood (1990) investigated the impact of involvement with organized recreation on individuals with mental retardation. They found that caregiver perceptions of improvement in physical and social competence were associated with participation in organized competitive sports, particularly Special Olympics.

Klein, Gilman and Zigler (1993) assessed the attitudes of experts and parents regarding Special Olympics as it relates to the lifestyle normalization process. The Special Olympics program was viewed by parents and experts as providing great benefit to participants, particularly in terms of social adjustment and life satisfaction.

Special Olympics, Inc. (1994) suggests that people's participation in Special Olympics leads to gains in psychosocial and physical behaviors (e.g., self-concept, social acceptance, perceived competence, and physical performance) important to community integration and ultimate inclusion.

A special program within Special Olympics, "Athletes for Outreach " (AFO) significantly enhances positive communication and social changes (Lord, 1995). There are combined-effect outcomes which include increased confidence, increased personal comfort and perceived control, improved interaction with others, enhanced ability to respond extemporaneously, and increased self-concept for AFO participants that are dependent on some communicative and social competence prerequisites. AFO components include teaching and practicing verbal and non-verbal communication skills such as topic appropriateness, use of understandable language (an aspect of vocabulary), and the use of appropriate supporting material.

These program components can be easily applied to the recreation setting. Leisure professionals, whether therapeutic recreation or otherwise, can develop programs similar to "Toastmasters International" or a speakers' bureau that provide valid learning experiences in communication and social skills, as well as, opportunities for social inclusion. Thus, leisure service providers not only make a positive impact on individual lives but also fulfill their responsibility towards social inclusion.

References

Abbeduto, L. and Rosenberg, S. (1992). Linguistic Communication in Persons With Mental Retardation. In S.F. Warren and J. Reichle (Eds.), Causes and Effects in Communication and Language Intervention (pp. 331-3591. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.

Breen, C. and Haring, T.G. (1991). Effects of Contextual Competence on Social Initiations. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 24, 337-347.

Chalip, L., Thomas, D.R. and Voyle, J. (1992). Sport, Recreation and Well-Being. In D. R. Thomas and H. Veno (eds.), Psychology and Social Change (pp. 132-156). Polminton North, New Zealand: Dunmore Press.

Coleman, D. and Iso-Ahola, S. (1993). Leisure and health: The Role of Social Support and Self-Determination. Journal of Leisure Research, 25, 111-128.

Dattilo, J. and Murphy, W.D. (19911. Leisure Education Program Planning: A Systematic

Approach. State College, PA: Venture Publishing, Inc.

Duran, R.L. and Kelly, L. (Winter, 1988). The Influence of Communicative Competence on Perceived Task, Social and Physical Attraction. Communication Quarterly, 36, 41-49.

Goldstein, H. and Gallagher, T.M. (1992). Strategies for Promoting the Social-Communicative Competence of Young Children With Specific Language Impairment. In S.L. Odom, S. R. McConnell, and M.A. McEvoy (Eds.), Social Competence of Young Children With Disabilities: Issues and Strategies for Intervention. (pp. 189-213). Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.

Kleiber, D., Ashton-Shaeffer, C. Malik, P., Lee, L. and Hood, C. (1990). Involvement With Special Recreation Associations: Perceived Impacts in Early Adulthood. Therapeutic Recreation Journal 24, 32-44.

Klein, T., Gilman, E. and Zigler, E. (1993, February). Special Olympics: An Evaluation by Professional And Parents. Mental Retardation, 31, 15-23.

Lillywhite, H.S. and Bradley, D.P. (1969). Communication Problems in Mental Retardation: Diagnosis and Management. New York: Harper and Row, Publishers.

Lord, M. (1995). A Field Study of the Effects of the "Athletes for Outreach" Program On Communication Competence And Perceived Social Competencies Among Individuals With Mental Retardation. (Dissertation--University of Texas at Austin).

Meyer, L.H., Cole, D.A., McQuarter, R. and Reichle, J. (1990). Validation of the Assessment of Social Competencies for Children and Young Adults With Developmental Disabilities. The Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 15 (2), 57-68.

Russell, R. (1996). Pastimes: The Context of Contemporary Leisure. Madison, WI: Brown and Benchmark Publishers.

Sherman, J.A., Sheldon, J.B., Harchik, A.E., Edwards, K., and Quinn, J.M. (1992, January). Social Evaluation of Behaviors Compromising Three Social Skills and a Comparison of the Performance of People With and Without Mental Retardation. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 96, 419-431.

Special Olympics International, Inc. (1994). Unpublished Report. 1993 Team USA research conducted by Dr. Elizabeth Dykens. Yale Child Study Ctr.

Stokowski, P. Lee, R. (1992). The Influence of Social Network Ties on Recreation and Leisure: An Exploratory Story. Journal of Leisure Research, 23, 95-113.

Stumbo, N. (1995). Social Skills Instruction Through Commercially Available Resources. Therapeutic Recreation Journal, 29, 30-55.

Wachter, C. (19941. The Influence of Communication Made on the Leisure Behavior of Adults Who Are Deaf. Therapeutic Recreation Journal, 28, 213-220.

Warren, S.F. and Abbeduto, L. (1992). The Relation of Communication and Language Development to Mental Retardation. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 97, 125-130.

Wolfensberger, W. and Tullman, S. (1982). A Brief Outline of the Principle of Normalization. Rehabilitation Psychology, 27, 131-145.

Michal Anne Lord, Ph.D., is an assistant professor and coordinator of the Recreation Administration Division at Southwest Texas State University's Department of Health, Physical [Education and Recreation.

Research Update is edited by Dr. Irma O'Dell of Southern Illinois University at Carbondale.