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Learning to guide preschool children's mathematical understanding: a teacher's professional growth / Aprender a guiar el entendimiento matematico de ninos preescolares: el desarrollo profesional de una maestra.


Abstract

The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) was founded in 1920. It has grown to be the world's largest organization concerned with mathematics education, having close to 100,000 members across the USA and Canada, and internationally.  emphasizes that young children need play-based opportunities to develop and deepen deep·en  
tr. & intr.v. deep·ened, deep·en·ing, deep·ens
To make or become deep or deeper.


deepen
Verb

to make or become deeper or more intense

Verb 1.
 their conceptual understanding of mathematics. From a social-constructivist perspective, learning is more likely to occur if adults or more-competent peers mediate MEDIATE, POWERS. Those incident to primary powers, given by a principal to his agent. For example, the general authority given to collect, receive and pay debts due by or to the principal is a primary power.  children's learning experiences. Emphasizing both the developmental and the curricular perspectives, this article focuses on the role of the teacher in guiding preschool children's mathematical learning while they play with everyday materials. Professional growth in three areas was identified as critical in teachers' learning to guide young children's learning of mathematical concepts. First is the ability to recognize children's demonstrated understanding of mathematical concepts, second is the ability to use mathematical language to guide their progress from behavioral behavioral

pertaining to behavior.


behavioral disorders
see vice.

behavioral seizure
see psychomotor seizure.
 to representational rep·re·sen·ta·tion·al  
adj.
Of or relating to representation, especially to realistic graphic representation.



rep
 understanding of mathematical concepts, and third is the ability to assess systematically children's understanding of mathematical concepts. Checklists tracing the development of three fundamental mathematical concepts--one-to-one correspondence, classification, and seriation--are suggested as tools for teachers to monitor preschool children's learning of mathematical concepts and plan appropriate learning experiences within children's zones of proximal proximal /prox·i·mal/ (-mil) nearest to a point of reference, as to a center or median line or to the point of attachment or origin.

prox·i·mal
adj.
 development. Creating an environment that is mathematically empowering and mediating children's experiences in this environment establish the foundation for constructing, modifying, and integrating mathematical concepts in young children.

Introduction

Laura has just finished reading the story "Goldilocks gold·i·locks  
pl.n. (used with a sing. or pl. verb)
A European plant (Aster linosyris) having narrow sessile leaves and dense corymbs of small, bright yellow, discoid flower heads.
 and the Three Bears" to her preschool class. She announces that it is now time for free play. Four-year-old Adj. 1. four-year-old - four years of age
young, immature - (used of living things especially persons) in an early period of life or development or growth; "young people"
 Rachel Rachel, in the Bible
Rachel (rā`chəl), in the Bible, wife of Jacob and mother of Joseph and Benjamin. She is one of the four Jewish matriarchs. An alternate form is Rahel.
 looks around the room for a while and walks over to the dramatic play/housekeeping center. Today this center is equipped with dolls, other soft toys soft toy njuguete m de peluche

soft toy njouet m en peluche

soft toy soft nStofftier
, cups, plates, plastic silverware, plastic food items, a table, chairs, and some dress-up Dress-Up is a game played mainly by children. It involves dressing up, usually to impersonate someone. The type of clothes they dress up in often resembles who they are trying to be, either adults' clothing or special play clothes designed specifically for dress-up like feather  clothes. Rachel picks up an oversized o·ver·size  
n.
1. A size that is larger than usual.

2. An oversize article or object.

adj. o·ver·size also o·ver·sized
Larger in size than usual or necessary.
 shirt and slips her feet into "mummy mummy, dead human or animal body preserved by embalming or by unusual natural conditions. As a rule mummies are from ancient times. The word is of Arabic derivation and refers primarily to the burials found in Egypt, where the practice of mummification was perfected  shoes." She then brings out three stuffed bears of different sizes from the collection and places them around the table. As she seats the bears on three chairs, she mutters Mutters is a muncipality in the Austrian state of Tyrol in the district of Innsbruck-Land.

    [
 under her breath, "You are Papa Bear" (picking the largest bear), "you are the Mummy Bear" (picking the medium-sized Me´di`um-sized`

a. 1. Having a medium size; as, a medium-sized man s>.

Adj. 1. medium-sized - intermediate in size
medium-size, moderate-size, moderate-sized
 bear), "and you are Baby Bear" (picking the smallest bear). Rachel then walks to the shelf and pulls out one plate and places it before Papa Bear; she walks back to the shelf to get a second plate and places it before Mama Bear; and then she makes one last trip to pick up a plate to place before Baby Bear. Next Rachel walks to the shelf and picks up a collection of spoons Spoons is a fast-paced card game of matching and bluffing played with an ordinary pack of playing cards and several ordinary kitchen spoons or various other objects. Spoons is played in multiple rounds and each player's objective is to be the first in the round to have four of a  of different sizes. She is now joined by 5-year-old Tiffany Tiffany, Tiffanie (UK)

a semi-longhaired version of the Burmese cat. It has a fine, silky coat in many colors.
, who tells her that the biggest bear needs the biggest spoon spoon,
n an instrument with a round or ovoid working end; designed to be used for scraping or scooping.
, the medium bear the medium spoon, and baby bear the smallest spoon. "Remember, like the bears story Ms. Laura read us." Rachel looks at Tiffany and then at the spoons, then randomly places a spoon before each bear. Tiffany immediately takes over and rearranges the spoons according to according to
prep.
1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians.

2. In keeping with: according to instructions.

3.
 the size of the bears. Rachel watches for a few seconds and then walks away.

Although observing a play episode like this one would not be unusual in many preschool classrooms, it had a particularly strong impact on how Laura understood her students' mathematical knowledge. As a new member of the local chapter of the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM NCTM National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
NCTM Nationally Certified Teacher of Music
NCTM North Carolina Transportation Museum
NCTM National Capital Trolley Museum
NCTM Nationally Certified in Therapeutic Massage
), Laura became particularly interested in the development of mathematical concepts in her students. She realized that the most remarkable growth of mathematical knowledge occurs between the pre-kindergarten Pre-kindergarten (also called Pre-K) refers to the first formal academic classroom-based learning environment that a child customarily attends in the United States. It begins around the age of four in order to prepare for the more didactic and academically intensive  and grade 2 levels and that it was especially important at this stage to focus on guiding children's development of fundamental mathematical concepts. Yet the lack of an agreed-on math curriculum for preschool made it difficult for Laura to decide which concepts were the most appropriate for her preschool children. Like many other teachers, Laura struggled to make sense of the development of her students' mathematical learning and relate it to her instructional decisions (Franke Franke is a Swiss company involved primarily in the production of stainless steel and composite plastic sinks and taps. It is also involved in the making of kitchen systems such as cookers, kitchen accessories such as strainer bowls and food preparation platters.  & Kazemi, 2001). She wrote in her journal:
   Teaching math has always been outside of my "comfort zone." Many
   commercial and teacher-made math games, including sets of animals,
   fruit, vehicles, shapes; board counting game; board classification
   games; and various spinners and large dice, are useful in
   reinforcing one-to-one correspondence, classification, and
   seriation. However, while used randomly and in isolation, these
   games may not help children fully grasp the math concepts they are
   built on. I have to go beyond providing some form of mathematical
   learning; I really need to have a well-thought-out math
   curriculum. I have tried math activities that I hoped would
   promote learning. I graphed with the children on a large mat. I
   had them each take off a shoe and decide by color where it should
   be placed. It was an activity that seemed to me that would be fun
   and hands-on, but the children were restless and bored. I set out
   small manipulatives with similar attributes and let the children
   explore and sort in bowls. I encouraged them to bring in leaf
   collections for the science table and discussed color and shape.
   Although the children were exploring the materials, I was
   challenged to find a way to assess what the children were learning
   and how to further develop their knowledge.


As is evident from this journal entry, Laura felt the need for a strong conceptual framework For the concept in aesthetics and art criticism, see .

A conceptual framework is used in research to outline possible courses of action or to present a preferred approach to a system analysis project.
 that would take into consideration the developmental characteristics of preschool children and would indicate environments that would foster children's natural mathematical abilities. Such a framework could help Laura to decide which mathematical concepts were appropriate for her students and the order in which they should be taught. Laura realized that these decisions needed to be based on her knowledge of the development of mathematical concepts and on an appropriate assessment of children's mathematical knowledge. She also realized that preschool programs needed to expand and deepen the conceptual knowledge that young children have already developed by 3 years of age (Payne
:The name may also be spelt Paine.


The surname Payne stems from paganus, see pagan. People
  • King Payne, a Seminole chief
  • A.R.
, 1990). The NCTM's (2000) new standards emphasize that all preschool children need opportunities to explore their world and experience mathematics through play. Knowing that, however, left Laura with more questions than answers. She wrote in her journal:
   How do I use play and play materials to enhance children's
   learning of primary math concepts? As a facilitator of learning,
   how can I engage the children in activities that would enable them
   to further construct mathematical concepts? What is the order in
   which math concepts develop? What are the primary math concepts
   and skills that preschool children need to develop in order to
   build a solid foundation for their later success in math in
   school? How do I ensure that I provide opportunities for each
   child as an individual to learn at his or her own rate? What kind
   of an ongoing assessment will be most helpful in planning
   developmentally appropriate math curriculum? How can I further
   expand the children's math knowledge and skills by improving my
   own practice and develop my knowledge in teaching mathematics?


Laura's observation of the play episode that involved Rachel and Tiffany helped her focus her work on the following specific questions:

* What mathematical concepts did Rachel and Tiffany exhibit during their play?

* How can I guide their learning so that their understanding of these concepts progresses to a higher level?

* Are other children in my class at the same stage as Rachel with regard to some of these concepts?

With these questions in mind, Laura began her master's mas·ter's  
n.
A master's degree.
 project. Because we had a research interest in early learning of mathematical concepts, we became Laura's supervisors. At that time, our own research was at the stage of developing a series of teacher-friendly assessment tools that would facilitate curriculum planning in the content area of mathematics. This project was an exciting opportunity for Laura to deepen her understanding of young children's learning of mathematics. For us, Laura's project was as an opportunity to implement and document the use of these tools in a preschool classroom and to receive her feedback on their appropriateness and usefulness for an ongoing assessment of young children's development of primary math concepts. As Laura's supervisors, we were able to document, through observations and analysis of her journal entries, how her thinking about young children's learning of mathematical concepts developed, and how her understanding about the need to align align (līn),
v to move the teeth into their proper positions to conform to the line of occlusion.
 curriculum, instruction, and assessment grew. In this article, we will focus on the main areas of growth in Laura's professional development that we believe could be helpful to other preschool teachers' growth.

Learning to Recognize Children's Demonstrated Understanding of Mathematical Concepts

The first and most important stage in Laura's professional growth was her enhanced ability to identify children's demonstrated understanding of mathematical concepts. Her observation of Rachel and Tiffany's Tiffany’s

jewelry firm founded by Charles Lewis Tiffany; store in New York caters to the wealthy. [Am. Hist.: EB, 10: 177]

See : Luxury
 reenactment re·en·act also re-en·act  
tr.v. re·en·act·ed, re·en·act·ing, re·en·acts
1. To enact again: reenact a law.

2.
 of the story of "Goldilocks and the Three Bears" directed Laura's attention to the "impressive informal mathematical strengths " (Baroody, 2000, p. 61) that young children bring to the classroom. She saw that in this episode Rachel demonstrated her behavioral knowledge, that is, knowing how to enact procedures and roles and to implement several mathematical concepts (Katz Katz , Bernard 1911-2003.

German-born British physiologist. He shared a 1970 Nobel Prize for the study of nerve impulse transmission.
 & Chard, 2000). For example, choosing only the bears from a larger collection of dolls and plush toys demonstrated her behavioral knowledge of the mathematical concept of classification. Providing a plate for each bear and a bear for each chair demonstrated her knowledge of one-to-one one-to-one
adj.
1. Allowing the pairing of each member of a class uniquely with a member of another class.

2. Mathematics
 correspondence; ordering the bears in size from biggest to smallest showed her behavioral knowledge of seriation Se`ri`a´tion

n. 1. (Chem.) Arrangement or position in a series.
. Tiffany also demonstrated her behavioral knowledge of double seriation by rearranging the spoons to correspond with the size of the bears after Rachel had placed the spoons randomly. More important, however, Tiffany demonstrated her ability to verbalize what needed to be done so that each bear received the appropriate size of spoon. Laura's raised awareness of the mathematical context of the interaction between the two children helped her to recognize the different stages they had reached in the development of their knowledge of seriation. She also became aware that young children express their mathematical knowledge in a variety of contexts that are not necessarily related to "math activities." As a result, she could plan individually appropriate learning experiences for them as well as joint experiences where they could learn from each other. She could also encourage informal mathematical learning by creating a math-rich environment and engaging children in mathematical conversations as they interact with the environment.

Learning to Use Language to Guide Children's Construction of Mathematical Concepts

The next stage of Laura's professional growth was marked by a change in her understanding of the role of teachers in preschool children's learning of mathematical concepts. Traditionally, the emphasis in preschool settings has been on how concepts are acquired, not on what should be taught. Kagan Kagan is a surname, and may refer to:
  • Daryn Kagan (b. 1963), a CNN host
  • Donald Kagan (b. 1932), a Yale historian specializing in ancient Greece
  • Elena Kagan, the dean of Harvard Law School
 (quoted in Jacobson Jacobson is a surname with several variants. Some people with this name include:
  • Amy Jacobson Television reporter for WMAQ News in Chicago
  • Bill Jacobson (born 1955), an American photographer
  • Carl Robert Jakobson (1841-1882), Estonian writer and teacher
, 1998, p. 12) pointed out, "We've we've  

Contraction of we have.

we've have
 approached [early education] more from developmental perspectives and not from curricular perspectives. We need both."

The constructivist con·struc·tiv·ism  
n.
A movement in modern art originating in Moscow in 1920 and characterized by the use of industrial materials such as glass, sheet metal, and plastic to create nonrepresentational, often geometric objects.
 paradigm based on Piaget's theory of cognitive development The Theory of Cognitive Development, one of the most historically influential theories was developed by Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist (1896–1980). His theory provided many central concepts in the field of developmental psychology and concerned the growth of intelligence,  has long provided the theoretical framework for educational practice in which children acquired concepts through active involvement with the environment and constructed their own knowledge as they explored their surroundings. Applying this theory to mathematics has led to the use of manipulative ma·nip·u·la·tive  
adj.
Serving, tending, or having the power to manipulate.

n.
Any of various objects designed to be moved or arranged by hand as a means of developing motor skills or understanding abstractions, especially in
 materials that enable young children to count, engage in active learning, and develop concepts (Kaplan Kaplan may refer to one of the following:
  • An individual with the surname of Kaplan
  • The origin and history of the surname Kaplan
  • Kaplan, Inc., an education company
, Yamamoto, & Ginsberg Gins·berg   , Allen 1926-1997.

American poet and a leading figure of the Beat Generation. Known for his long incantatory works, his books include Howl (1956) and Kaddish (1961).

Noun 1.
, 1989). The teacher has been seen to take the role of providing a variety of materials and arranging an environment that is rich in materials and choices. However, in the revised version Revised Version
n.
A British and American revision of the King James Version of the Bible, completed in 1885.


Revised Version
Noun
 of the principles of developmentally appropriate practice Developmentally appropriate practice (or DAP) is a perspective within early childhood education whereby a teacher or child caregiver nurtures a child's social/emotional, physical, and cognitive development by basing all practices and decisions on (1) theories of child development, (2)  (Bredekamp & Copple Cop´ple

n. 1. Something rising in a conical shape; specifically, a hill rising to a point.
A low cape, and upon it a copple not very high.
- Hakluyt.
, 1997), the National Association for the Education of Young Children The National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) is the largest nonprofit association in the United States representing early childhood education teachers, experts, and advocates in center-based and family day care.  (NAEYC NAEYC National Association for the Education of Young Children (Washington, DC) ) leaders acknowledged that the emphasis on providing a variety of choices in the classroom and avoiding teaching children specific skills has been misinterpreted. As a result, in preschool settings, manipulative materials were typically used in a nonsystematic way that permitted double randomization randomization (ranˈ·d·m : one to do with the appearance of the manipulative material per se and the other determined by variations in the readiness of the children to register them (Feuerstein Feuerstein (German: lit., "fire stone", flint) may refer to:
  • Bedřich Feuerstein (1892-1936), Czech architect, painter, and essayist
  • Georg Feuerstein (b. 1947), German-American Indologist and leading authority on Yoga in the West
  • Herbert Feuerstein (b.
 & Feuerstein, 1991). This randomization may have prevented real conceptual learning from occurring for a number of children who could have otherwise been included in planned activities for learning. Although high-quality learning in the preschool years is often informal, this informality does not imply an unplanned or unsystematic program. Mathematics learning in preschools should be thought provoking pro·vok·ing  
adj.
Troubling the nerves or peace of mind, as by repeated vexations: a provoking delay at the airport.



pro·vok
, should include opportunities for active learning, and should be rich in mathematical language. More recently, the NCTM's (2000) standards addressed the issue of mathematical content, mathematical process Noun 1. mathematical process - (mathematics) calculation by mathematical methods; "the problems at the end of the chapter demonstrated the mathematical processes involved in the derivation"; "they were learning the basic operations of arithmetic" , and the importance of introducing young children to the language and conventions of mathematics.

Thus the role of the teacher in active learning has been seen more recently as being crucial. The teacher is the facilitator who creates a learning environment that is mathematically empowering (NCTM, 1991). The theoretical framework that informed this change was Vygotsky's (1978, 1986) social-constructivist theory of cognitive development. In this theory, learning is more likely to occur if adults or older children mediate young children's learning experiences (Baroody, 2000). Vygotsky believed in a learning continuum Continuum (pl. -tinua or -tinuums) can refer to:
  • Continuum (theory), anything that goes through a gradual transition from one condition, to a different condition, without any abrupt changes or "discontinuities"
 characterized char·ac·ter·ize  
tr.v. character·ized, character·iz·ing, character·iz·es
1. To describe the qualities or peculiarities of: characterized the warden as ruthless.

2.
 by the distance between a child's ability to solve a problem independently and his or her "maximally max·i·mal  
adj.
1. Of, relating to, or consisting of a maximum.

2. Being the greatest or highest possible.

n. Mathematics
An element in an ordered set that is followed by no other.
 assisted" problem-solving problem-solving nresolución f de problemas;
problem-solving skills → técnicas de resolución de problemas

problem-solving n
 ability under adult or more-experienced peer guidance. He called this area where real learning occurs the "zone of proximal development Lev Vygotsky's notion of zone of proximal development (зона ближайшего развития), often abbreviated ZPD " (ZPD ZPD Zero Path Difference
ZPD Zone Proximal Development
ZPD Zero Percent Discount
). The role of the teacher, therefore, is to provide "scaffold scaffold

Temporary platform used to elevate and support workers and materials during work on a structure or machine. It consists of one or more wooden planks and is supported by either a timber or a tubular steel or aluminum frame; bamboo is used in parts of Asia.
 assistance" (Berk & Winsler, 1995), which entails a continual modification of the tasks so as to provide the appropriate level of challenge that enables the child to learn. The adult changes the quality of the support over a teaching session, adjusting the assistance to fit the child's level of performance (Berk & Winsler, 1995). Children learn through meaningful, naturalistic nat·u·ral·is·tic  
adj.
1. Imitating or producing the effect or appearance of nature.

2. Of or in accordance with the doctrines of naturalism.
, active learning experiences. The adult must build on this knowledge and take the children to higher levels of understanding.

Having embraced the Vygotskian view of learning, Laura began to realize she must decide what further opportunities--not only materials, but more important, interactions--she needed to provide for Rachel, Tiffany, and the rest of the children in her classroom. Only then could she develop and expand their understanding of mathematics meaningfully. She wrote in her journal:
   I need to make the physical environment in my classroom more math
   rich. The furniture is child sized and easily adaptable to
   accommodate cooperative work. There is adequate and comfortable
   space on the partially carpeted floor to explore, construct, and
   work with concrete materials. Math materials and manipulatives are
   stored in clear bins on picture-labeled, open shelves and are in
   easy reach of the children. It is my intent now to increase the
   children's mathematical comprehension by assisting their
   construction of knowledge in one-to-one correspondence,
   classification, and seriation.


To guide children's learning of the concepts demonstrated during the free play episode, Laura began to see the need to become involved in a variety of situations that create a common language related to mathematics (Franke & Kazemi, 2001). For example, we were able to observe her daily discussions with children that involved comparisons of opposites during choice time. The children and the teacher talked about which blocks were bigger or smaller, which blocks fit into the shelves the best: small, medium, or large. They also made it a daily habit to discuss order: who was the first person in line, who was the second person in line, who was the last person in line or the caboose, the snack person. Language allows the acquisition of new information as well as the appropriation The designation by the government or an individual of the use to which a fund of money is to be applied. The selection and setting apart of privately owned land by the government for public use, such as a military reservation or public building.  of complex ideas and processes (Bodrova & Leong, 1996). Open-ended questioning A closed-ended question is a form of question, which normally can be answered with a simple "yes/no" dichotomous question, a specific simple piece of information, or a selection from multiple choices (multiple-choice question), if one excludes such non-answer responses as dodging a  can encourage expanded thinking. "What else?" and "I wonder what would happen if" can draw children's attention to new ways of thinking and interacting. Kamii (1982) explains that it is important to allow children who are constructing their own mathematical knowledge to do so without the teacher reinforcing the "right-ness" or correcting the "wrong-ness" of the child's answer. Disagreement with peers can help the child reexamine re·ex·am·ine also re-ex·am·ine  
tr.v. re·ex·am·ined, re·ex·am·in·ing, re·ex·am·ines
1. To examine again or anew; review.

2. Law To question (a witness) again after cross-examination.
 the correctness of his or her own thinking. Social interactions through group games are an excellent source of constructing new mathematical ideas and can lead children to make new connections and expand their own reasoning. This interaction helps them to become more independent and less reliant on the teacher as the sole source of answers.

If learning situations were organized and based on the developmental sequence of mathematical concepts, then the curriculum would reflect the children's present stage of understanding and would provide possibilities for further development at each child's pace. According to Katz and Chard (2000), understanding "how knowledge develops, what they [children] can understand, and how they understand their experiences as development proceeds is another basis for curriculum planning" (p. 26). Thus to take both Rachel and Tiffany from behavioral to representational knowledge (i.e., mental or symbolic representations of the concepts abstracted from direct and/or and/or  
conj.
Used to indicate that either or both of the items connected by it are involved.

Usage Note: And/or is widely used in legal and business writing.
 indirect experiences), Laura needed to carefully plan not only the physical layout of her classroom but most importantly Adv. 1. most importantly - above and beyond all other consideration; "above all, you must be independent"
above all, most especially
 her interactions with them so as to help their progress through the stages of the representation of mathematical concepts.

Learning to Assess Children's Understanding of Mathematical Concepts

Like most educators, Laura was looking for Looking for

In the context of general equities, this describing a buy interest in which a dealer is asked to offer stock, often involving a capital commitment. Antithesis of in touch with.
 ways to improve the alignment of curriculum, instruction, and assessment. While working on her master's project, she began to think at a higher level about the connection between curriculum and assessment. She realized that if the purpose of assessment was to enable teachers to make appropriate decisions to improve students' understanding and learning of mathematical concepts, then her own deep knowledge of these key concepts, facts, principles, and processes was essential for planning appropriate curriculum and classroom experiences. Thus to be able to guide children's learning of mathematical concepts, she needed to be thoroughly grounded in the developmental sequence of the concepts the children learn. Only then could she assess the current level of children's understanding of mathematical concepts and plan experiences in their zone of proximal development.

Laura realized, however, that theoretical knowledge alone was insufficient for effective teaching; she would need appropriate tools to assess such learning. Assessment and documentation of children's work could help her plan developmentally appropriate and, more important, individually appropriate experiences that would promote children's learning. It is well accepted among early childhood professionals that observation is the most appropriate method of assessing preschool children and that play offers a perfect context for observing children and determining their knowledge and understanding (Garvey Gar·vey   , Marcus (Moziah) Aurelius 1887-1940.

Jamaican Black nationalist active in America in the 1920s. He founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association (1914) and later urged African Americans to establish an independent country in Africa.
, 1990; Howes Howes can refer to: People
  • Bobby Howes, actor
  • Brian Howes, Canadian musician
  • Greg Howes, soccer player
  • Jimmy Howes, Radio Personality, Program Dir.
, 1992).

The following sections outline how Laura used the theoretical knowledge about the developmental sequence of mathematical concepts that were demonstrated by Rachel and Tiffany in the play episode to assess and guide all the students' learning of these concepts. These concepts are (1) matching and one-to-one correspondence, (2) sets and classification, and (3) order and seriation. Children's development of these concepts progresses through several stages. We compiled these stages in a checklist, and Laura used this checklist in her work.

Concept #1: Matching and One-to-One Correspondence

As discussed above, Rachel's Rachel's is an American post-rock group formed in Louisville, Kentucky in 1991 by guitarist Jason Noble. While Rachel's began as primarily a solo project for Noble he quickly began collaborating with now core members violist Christian Frederickson, and pianist Rachel Grimes.  placing of one plate for each bear demonstrated her understanding of the concept of matching and one-to-one correspondence. Typically, children between 2 and 4 years of age develop this understanding through the relationships of "more-less-the same" (Brush, 1972; Gelman & Gallistel, 1978). Matching is a prerequisite pre·req·ui·site  
adj.
Required or necessary as a prior condition: Competence is prerequisite to promotion.

n.
 for conservation; it is one of the earliest mathematical concepts to develop and forms the foundation for the development of logical thinking. One-to-one correspondence is the fundamental component of the concept of number. It is the understanding that one group has the same number of things as another. It is preliminary to counting and basic to the understanding of equivalence and the concept of conservation of number (Charlesworth Charlesworth is a family name, may refer to the following people:
  • Brent Charlesworth
  • Brian Charlesworth
  • Deborah Charlesworth
  • Florence L. Barclay, born Florence Charlesworth
  • Hector Charlesworth
  • James H.
 & Lind, 1999; Montague-Smith, 1997). Once children understand basic one-to-one correspondence, they can apply this concept to higher-level activities that involve equivalence and the idea of "more or less" (see Appendix I).

Using the checklist, Laura was able to identify the stage of Rachel's understanding of the concept of one-to-one correspondence as being at "matching even sets of items that are related or go together but are not alike." To support and guide Rachel's learning to the next level of the same concept, Laura provided opportunities for her to match uneven sets of five or more items. She used every opportunity to join Rachel in the housekeeping A set of instructions that are executed at the beginning of a program. It sets all counters and flags to their starting values and generally readies the program for execution.  play area. Using everyday objects (both in even and odd quantities) with which Rachel was familiar, like cups and saucers Cups and Saucers is a one-act "satirical musical sketch" written and composed by George Grossmith. It was first produced in 1876 on tour as a vehicle for Grossmith and Florence Marryat, as part of Entre Nous, their series of piano sketches. , spoons and forks Forks may refer to:
  • Fork, a pronged eating utensil
  • Forks, Washington, a city in the United States
  • Forks Township, Northampton County, Pennsylvania, a township in the United States
, shovels and pails, or sets of plastic animals, Laura was able to identify Rachel's ability to match items that are alike or not alike. When Rachel's use of these materials did not indicate a clear pattern, Laura asked specific questions. For example, Laura brought in some plastic animals to add to the teddy bears teddy bear

cuddly commodity named after President Theodore Roosevelt. [Am. Hist.: Frank, 46]

See : Cuteness
 and used small containers. At an opportune op·por·tune  
adj.
1. Suited or right for a particular purpose: an opportune place to make camp.

2. Occurring at a fitting or advantageous time: an opportune arrival.
 time in play, she asked Rachel to find one animal for each container. After repeated interactions of this nature, Laura observed Rachel playing at the water table, placing one frog frog, common name for an amphibian of the order Anura. Frogs are found all over the world, except in Antarctica. They require moisture and usually live in quiet freshwater or in the woods.  on each plastic leaf in the water. Laura also noted that at the snack table Rachel carefully placed a cup next to a paper napkin a napkin made of paper, intended to be disposed of after use.

See also: Napkin
 for each child.

To take Rachel from behavioral to representational knowledge, Laura was careful to use language related to the concept of matching and one-to-one correspondence. Rich social interactions with teachers and more-competent peers can contribute to children's opportunities for learning and developing behavioral knowledge into representational knowledge. Children's ability to use words such as not enough and too many would show the highest level of their understanding of matching and one-to-one correspondence. The use of children's literature children's literature, writing whose primary audience is children.

See also children's book illustration. The Beginnings of Children's Literature


The earliest of what came to be regarded as children's literature was first meant for adults.
 also facilitated the development of language related to mathematical concepts.

Because one-to-one correspondence means that one group has the same number of things as another, Laura's goal was to help not only Rachel but all the children in her classroom to see the relationship in any set of materials. As a result, Laura converted clean-up clean-up nnettoyage m

clean-up clean n to give sth a clean-up → etw gründlich sauber machen

clean-up n
 time to an important "math time" by introducing a matching game. She asked the children to place one object in a container or on a shelf. In doing this activity, they were to match object to object, object to picture, and picture to picture (see Appendix I). She also introduced various commercial games and teacher-made matching activities available to the children at choice time. The teacher-made activities included baskets of small objects, divided trays, tongs tongs

long-handled, about 3 feet, shaped like pincers with knobs on the ends of the grasping blades. Applied by standing behind the subject in a confined space and closing the jaws to grasp the animal's head just below the ears.
 (optional, depending on the individual child's fine motor skills The examples and perspective in this article or section may not represent a worldwide view of the subject.
Please [ improve this article] or discuss the issue on the talk page.

“Dexterity” redirects here. For other uses, see Dexterity (disambiguation).
), and a one-through-three or one-through-six die. These activities introduced the concept of matching: one object goes into one section of the tray See tray drive, tray card and System Tray. . One of the activities that Laura's children really enjoyed was taking marbles from a basket with a melon melon, fruit of Cucumis melo, a plant of the family Curcurbitaceae (gourd family) native to Asia and now cultivated extensively in warm regions. There are many varieties, differing in taste, color, and skin texture—e.g.  scoop and putting one marble in each compartment compartment

a part of the body as a whole and divided from the rest by a physical partition.


fluid compartment
that liquid part of the body excluded by cell membranes. Includes intravascular and intercellular compartments.
 of an ice cube cube, in geometry, regular solid bounded by six equal squares. All adjacent faces of a cube are perpendicular to each other; any one face of a cube may be its base. The dimensions of a cube are the lengths of the three edges which meet at any vertex.  tray. Laura wrote in her journal, "This activity is so popular that I have to take names for a waiting list for those children who want to do the marble game over and over."

As the children became more proficient pro·fi·cient  
adj.
Having or marked by an advanced degree of competence, as in an art, vocation, profession, or branch of learning.

n.
An expert; an adept.
 in their one-to-one-correspondence skills, Laura introduced grid and short path games. Grid games are bingo-type cards (without letters or numbers) used in combination with dice or spinners Spinners can refer to:
  • The Spinners (U.S. band), an American R&B/soul group active from 1957 to the present
  • The Spinners (UK band), a British folk group active from 1959 to 1989
  • A spinner (wheel), an automotive accessory
See also
  • Spinner
 and counters (Moomaw & Hieronymus Hieronymus: see Jerome, Saint. , 1995). Teddy Bear Bingo and Candy Land Candy Land is a simple racing board game. It has become a cultural icon in the U.S., where it is often the first board game played by children because it requires no ability to read and only minimal counting skills.  Bingo are examples of commercial grid games. These games allowed Laura to observe the different levels at which the children were with regard to the level of development of matching and one-to-one correspondence. For some children, counting the pips on the dice was a challenge; they either double-counted or skipped pips. Rachel, for example, counted six as " one, two, three; one two three." For others, counting did not present a problem. They were even able to use mathematical language to not only explain what they were doing but also to predict what they needed to win the game. Megan said, "I got six, now I only have three more to go," and Tiffany said, "One and two is three, now I need four more." Having observed Tiffany, Laura asked her if she would like to play the grid game with Rachel. Tiffany, who enjoyed the game tremendously and was looking for all available opportunities to play it, readily agreed. During the interaction between the two children, Tiffany said to Rachel, "This is not how you count these! Look. You go like this (pointing to each pip with a pencil and saying one, two, three, four, five One, two, three, four, five is a popular English counting-based nursery rhyme. A common version is as follows.

One, two, three, four, five.
Once I caught a fish alive.
Six, seven, eight, nine, ten.
)." After several repetitions, Rachel was able to count on her own to six.

In path games, children roll a die or dice to advance a mover mover /mov·er/ (moo´ver) that which produces motion.

prime mover  a muscle that acts directly to bring about a desired movement.
 on a path of distinctly separate spaces. Moomaw and Hieronymus (1995) assert that "path games incorporate the thinking strategies needed for grid games at a more difficult level and place additional emphasis on social interactions with teachers and peers" (p. 117). The first short path game covered the path with bingo chips to help the squirrel squirrel, name for small or medium-sized rodents of the family Sciuridae, found throughout the world except in Australia, Madagascar, and the polar regions; it is applied especially to the tree-living species.  find some nuts. The one-through-six dice were used (Figure 1). All of the children were able to understand the concept of the short path game with a start and finish.

[FIGURE 1 OMITTED]

The next short path activity was more complex. The snake game used unifix cubes cubes

See QQQ.
 as counters and used the one-through-six spinner. The snake game was more difficult for the children who had not yet mastered the ability to match uneven sets with five or more items. Rachel, for example, had difficulty matching the unifix cube with its corresponding square. The squares followed an "s" shape, and the shape confused her. She skipped squares and lost count when she was adding cubes. She could not finish the game. Tiffany, on the other hand, was already able to predict, "I have three, and now I just need one more!" She also counted squares to see how many she had left before she was finished. She played the game several times with great enthusiasm. Knowing that Tiffany was successful in helping Rachel learn how to count the pips on the dice to six, Laura once again ask her to play with Rachel. This time Tiffany used a different strategy to show Rachel what she needed to do. She said, "Rachel, you just put your finger on the next square and then move the cube." Although Rachel learned quickly how to follow the curved path, recognizing the numbers on the spinner remained a problem. Tiffany decided that she would have to tell her how many squares she needs to move her cube. Rachel was happy to have Tiffany help her.

Concept #2: Early Classification: Creating Sets

In her reenactment of the story of Goldilocks, Rachel demonstrated her understanding of classification when she saw the sameness of the bears regardless of their size. According to Sugarman Sugarman can refer to:
  • Sara Sugarman, an actress
  • Sugarman syndrome, a common name for a human disease
See also
  • Sugar Man, a fictional character from the Marvel Universe.
 (1983), "Classification exists when two or more discrete events are treated as equivalent" (p. 4). This classification leads to the recognition that one group of objects is part of a larger group. However, some people may treat some objects or groups of objects as equivalent for different reasons.

Using the checklist, Laura determined that Rachel had behavioral knowledge of classification by association and that she demonstrated some knowledge of class inclusion. Thus to guide Rachel's learning of this concept, Laura needed to engage Rachel in an activity that would help her understand the concept of class: inclusion. Snack time presented such an opportunity. While making a fruit salad, Laura asked Rachel, "We have apples and bananas ba·nan·as  
adj. Slang
Crazy: "That's the horrible thing when you're bananas
 in this fruit salad; could we add any other fruit?" Clean-up time also provided Laura with an opportunity to ask Rachel to put all the animals in one box. A few days later, the children were pretending to go on a picnic, and Laura overheard Rachel tell the children, "We need to put all the food in the picnic basket A picnic basket is a basket or other container intended to hold food and tableware for a picnic meal. The term usually refers to the contents of the container as well as the container itself. ." As one of the other children put the food in the basket, Rachel picked up a variety of toys and placed them in another box to take to the picnic. During the "picnic," Laura "accidentally" placed a ball in the picnic basket, and she was reprimanded by Rachel, who said, "That does not go in the picnic basket."

Laura realized that at each of the levels of the development of the concept, it was important that she talk to Rachel and ask her to describe and then explain what she had done. Vygotsky believed that children become capable of thinking as they talk (Bodrova & Leong, 1996). When a child demonstrated behavioral understanding of a concept and described what she or he had represented, Laura made sure that she talked to the child to determine that she was also able to explain her actions. This discussion ensured that the child had truly understood the concept and was not merely repeating words with no real understanding. The use of language in shared activity allows the child to construct meaning and also to demonstrate a higher level of understanding of the concept.

Most very young children have the ability to classify clas·si·fy  
tr.v. clas·si·fied, clas·si·fy·ing, clas·si·fies
1. To arrange or organize according to class or category.

2. To designate (a document, for example) as confidential, secret, or top secret.
 objects. However, young children do not necessarily know the names of colors not of the white race; - commonly meaning, esp. in the United States, of negro blood, pure or mixed.

See also: Color
, shapes, materials, and so forth. This lack of vocabulary may be mistaken for lack of knowledge or ability to classify by one attribute. So the teacher should ask young children to classify not using a specific color or shape but rather using general questions such as "Can you find something that is the same color (or shape or size or material, etc.) as this one?" By the time children demonstrate that they can classify by two or more attributes, they have already acquired the vocabulary to describe the specific characteristics of the object. So it is then appropriate for the teacher to ask the children, "Can you find something that is red and long?"

To help Rachel develop the ability to classify by function or association, during clean-up time Laura asked her, "Can you put the things that you draw with together in this box, please?" or "Can you find in the play center all the things a doctor uses and put them in one place, please?" During dramatic play, Laura asked the children to gather everything necessary to set up a grocery store so that Goldilocks could buy more groceries gro·cer·y  
n. pl. gro·cer·ies
1. A store selling foodstuffs and various household supplies.

2. groceries Commodities sold by a grocer.
 to make porridge for the bears. Although it is not typical for preschool children to have a clear understanding of class inclusion and exclusion, when asked specific questions, some may demonstrate partial understanding of the concept. They are particularly likely to understand when class inclusion is related to personal experiences such as visiting a doctor's office, going to the grocery store, or gardening with a parent (see Appendix II).

Graphing is a more complex way of classification. Simple group bar graphs are developmentally appropriate for preschool and enable the children to work together and learn from each other. Bar graphs that distinctly display information give the children practice in creating and comparing sets:
   A good graph arises out of the children's natural desire to share
   information with their peers, quantify the results, and compare
   the outcomes. Graphs can be especially motivating to cognitively
   advanced children since they provoke a high level of thinking.
   (Moomaw & Hieronymus, 1995, p. 170)


As Halloween Halloween (hăl'əwēn`, häl'–), Oct. 31, the eve of All Saints' Day, observed with traditional games and customs. The word comes from medieval England's All Hallows' eve (Old Eng. hallow="saint").  approached, Laura engaged the children in graphing based on predictions. She introduced pumpkins with a graph titled "How Do Pumpkins Grow?" (Figure 2). Pumpkins growing various ways illustrated the choices: on a pumpkin pumpkin, common name for the genus Cucurbita of the family Cucurbitaceae (gourd family), a group that includes the pumpkins and squashes—the names may be used interchangeably and without botanical distinction. C.  tree, on a pumpkin bush, on a vine vine, climbing plant or trailing plant. The grape is often called "the vine." See also liana.
vine

Plant whose stem requires support and that climbs by tendrils or twining or creeps along the ground, or the stem of such a plant.
, or under the ground. The children's names were on cardboard Cardboard is a generic non-specific term for a heavy duty paper based product. Paperboard

Main article: Paperboard


Paperboard is a paper based material. It is often used for folding cartons, set-up boxes, carded packaging, etc.
 rectangles and available for them to choose. Laura called the children over individually and presented each choice again and asked them to put their name by how they thought pumpkins grew.

[FIGURE 2 OMITTED]

This activity showed again that young children think differently or do not have knowledge assumed by adults. The majority of the children chose correctly that pumpkins grew on vines. Sid (1) (Society for Information Display, Santa Ana, CA, www.sid.org) A membership organization founded in 1962 devoted to the information display industry. With chapters around the world, SID hosts conferences in the U.S. and abroad and publishes a monthly magazine. , however, stated, "Pumpkins grow underground like potatoes." Jamie Jamie is a given name, derived as a pet form of James. However, it has been used as an independent given name in English speaking countries for several generations. Though Jamie was originally exclusively male, since the 1950s it has also been used as a female given name,  also chose underground but could not explain her choice. When questioned, she said, "Because they [pumpkins] do." After the children and the teacher completed their discussion, Laura showed the class some pictures of a pumpkin patch and pumpkins on a vine. She asked if anyone could see how the pumpkins were growing. All the children agreed that pumpkins did indeed grow on vines.

Concept #3: Order and Seriation

In the play episode described above, Rachel also demonstrated her behavioral understanding of seriation by systematically placing the bears from largest to smallest. Ordering is a higher level of comparing (seeing differences) and involves comparing more than two objects or more than two sets. Ordering or seriation involves putting more than two objects or sets with more than two members into a sequence. Ordering also involves placing objects in a sequence from first to last, and it is a prerequisite to patterning. Ordering is the foundation of our number system (e.g., 2 is bigger than 1, 3 is bigger than 2, etc.).

Laura saw from the checklist that the next stage in the developmental sequence of that concept is double seriation. During the play episode, Rachel did not understand this concept, as she demonstrated when she placed the spoons randomly and not according to the size of the bears. In fact when the older child, Tiffany, reminded her that the biggest bear needed the biggest spoon, Rachel ignored her, and when Tiffany continued, Rachel walked away. Stories like "Goldilocks and the Three Bears" are frequently used to illustrate the concept of double seriation. Yet because Rachel did not grasp the concept from the first reading, Laura decided to provide cups and spoons, animals, and bowls of various sizes that could be used for double seriation. Later in the school year, Laura noticed Rachel explaining the concept of double seriation to Emily EMILY Early Money Is Like Yeast
EMILY Electronic Membrane-Information Library
EMILY Every Moment I Love You
 in the same way that Tiffany had attempted to explain the concept to Rachel. Laura heard Emily finally exclaim ex·claim  
v. ex·claimed, ex·claim·ing, ex·claims

v.intr.
To cry out suddenly or vehemently, as from surprise or emotion: The children exclaimed with excitement.

v.
, "I get it--the big bowl goes with the big dog!" Competent peers can model concepts and guide learning for the less-competent child during shared activities. Shared activity forces the participants to clarify and elaborate their thinking (Bodrova & Leong, 1996).

Laura also engaged all the children in learning experiences that could help them gain both behavioral and representational knowledge of the concept of order and seriation. These included asking children to line up by height before going out to play, putting characters in their paintings according to their size, seriating sounds from loudest to softest, and coloring objects according to their hue from lightest to darkest or vice versa VICE VERSA. On the contrary; on opposite sides. . Sequencing of events while on a field trip was another learning experience Laura provided for her students that was related to understanding seriation. In addition, Laura was conscientious con·sci·en·tious  
adj.
1. Guided by or in accordance with the dictates of conscience; principled: a conscientious decision to speak out about injustice.

2.
 about using mathematical language when the children were playing with blocks, nesting cups, and so forth. Some specific questions she asked were, "Can you find a block that is smaller than this?" or "Can you find something that is bigger than this cup?" While playing with toy vehicles, she asked the child to put the cars in order from biggest to smallest or smallest to biggest. Laura also brought to the classroom her own collection of 17 pinecones--from giant Sequoia giant sequoia: see sequoia.  cones Cones
Receptor cells that allow the perception of colors.

Mentioned in: Color Blindness
 from California California (kăl'ĭfôr`nyə), most populous state in the United States, located in the Far West; bordered by Oregon (N), Nevada and, across the Colorado River, Arizona (E), Mexico (S), and the Pacific Ocean (W).  to very tiny pinecones from sapling evergreen evergreen, term commonly used as synonymous with conifer and applied also to all those broad-leaved plants that bear green leaves throughout the year. Of the latter, most are plants of the tropics, subtropics, and other areas where the growing season is prolonged (e.  trees. The children were excited to learn where she collected them and how the different types of pine trees have different-sized pinecones. They enjoyed putting them in order from the smallest to the biggest and vice versa. Although most children used trial and error to put them in order, almost all of them were able to seriate se·ri·ate  
adj.
Arranged or occurring in a series or in rows.



seri·ate
 at least 9 of the cones from biggest to smallest. One child was even able to seriate all 17 of them. Seriating in reverse order was more challenging and needed a lot of verbal cueing on the part of the teacher. The inclusion of vocabulary like first, second, third, and so forth helped the children to develop representational knowledge of seriation (see Appendix III).

The Use of the Checklists

When teachers continually con·tin·u·al  
adj.
1. Recurring regularly or frequently: the continual need to pay the mortgage.

2.
 monitor and evaluate children's understanding, they can build on the children's knowledge in contexts that are meaningful to the children. The checklists provided a means for charting children's understanding of some mathematical concepts in Laura's preschool classroom. Laura used these checklists not to evaluate or determine mastery but to gather information that could be used for curriculum development. She used these checklists to identify the specific stages of development of the concepts in each child and then to plan appropriate materials and learning experiences to scaffold children's learning in the zone of proximal development of that concept. Laura was careful to note that in addition to demonstrating behavioral understanding the children were also able to describe and explain their actions. Children's explanations of their actions helped Laura determine that there was true understanding of the concept and that they were not merely repeating words without real understanding. The ongoing assessment allowed her to monitor individual children's progress and thus focus on guiding children's learning of these concepts. The checklists helped Laura make decisions about providing developmentally appropriate activities for the children she worked with. She wrote in her journal:
   The checklist helped me arrange my lessons in a logical manner
   from simple to more complex. I learned to be a careful observer
   and listener to the children not only at the math table but also
   during free choice and playtime. I was able to adjust to
   children's individual needs in various pre-math activities. I
   aligned curriculum and assessment to give me a more solid grasp of
   the stages of development of the mathematical concepts of matching
   and one-to-one correspondence, classification, and seriation.


Systematic yet flexible use of checklists in any preschool classroom can facilitate teachers' decision making about how to set up the classroom, what questions to ask, and what resources to provide for the development of each child (Helm, Beneke, & Steinheimer, 1997). Like Laura, other teachers can use these checklists while observing small groups of children working together or individual children participating in an activity. The checklists can also be used for individual interviews to assess children who do not demonstrate understanding while working independently or in groups. In addition, the checklists can be used for performance assessments to determine how children carry out specific tasks that replicate rep·li·cate
v.
1. To duplicate, copy, reproduce, or repeat.

2. To reproduce or make an exact copy or copies of genetic material, a cell, or an organism.

n.
A repetition of an experiment or a procedure.
 real-life real-life  
adj.
Actually happening or having happened; not fictional: a documentary with footage of real-life police chases. 
 experiences (Billman Bill´man

n. 1. One who uses, or is armed with, a bill or hooked ax.
 & Sherman Sherman, city (1990 pop. 31,601), seat of Grayson co., N Tex., near the Red River; inc. 1858. Originally on a stagecoach route, it is a highway and railroad junction. Manufactures include electronic equipment, processed foods, military equipment, and metal products. , 1996).

Teachers can use the checklists as frequently as they consider necessary to chart children's development and understanding of concepts. To determine the level of understanding at the beginning of the year, the checklist can be used in the first few weeks of the program. It would be helpful to carry out this assessment for all children during free-choice free-choice

the animals are free to eat as much as they like of two or more feeds which are available.
 activities. The role of the teacher could then be to provide a variety of materials that enable the children to demonstrate spontaneously spontaneously Medtalk Without treatment  and naturally their behavioral knowledge of mathematical concepts. This initial information could then be used in deciding what experiences could be helpful for individual children and for small groups of children who need similar experiences. After providing opportunities for children to demonstrate their behavioral knowledge through active involvement with materials, teachers need to interact with the children. When teachers use the language of mathematics in such interactions, children are helped to progress from one level of behavioral knowledge to the next, or from behavioral to representational understanding of the concept. Laura noticed that the children's overall increased awareness of math led to many more spontaneous spontaneous /spon·ta·ne·ous/ (spon-ta´ne-us)
1. voluntary; instinctive.

2. occurring without external influence.


spontaneous

having no apparent external cause.
 uses of math skills in the classroom. She recorded in her journal:
   Plastic animals were classified and seriated. Colored blocks were
   used to make intricate geometric patterns. The building blocks
   were used in increasingly more complex ways. Building with blocks
   at the beginning of the school year was single-leveled and linear.
   As the project progressed and the children became more proficient,
   building with blocks became multileveled and more abstract. The
   calendar numbers were counted many times during the day with
   more-able children helping their less-able friends identify the
   names of number symbols. This increase of mathematical awareness
   carried over to some children's homes. Several parents told me
   that their children had become very interested in math outside of
   school. Megan's mother, for example, told me that she was
   patterning "everything": the family's shoes, cans in the cupboard,
   cereal, candy, and even her little brother's toys.


Periodic and systematic use of the checklists is necessary for monitoring the development of the concepts in each child. Dating observations while using the checklists provides a record of each child's growth and development and helps identify children with similar levels of understanding at any given time. This process informs the teacher's decisions about the need to guide the learning process for each child. "Quality assessments inform instructional decisions and allow teachers to monitor individual children's progress while focusing on how children are thinking about mathematics" (NTCM NTCM Noncoherent Trellis-Coded Modulation
NTCM Nested Tropical Cyclone Model
, 2000, p. 6). When teachers know what mathematical concepts they wish children to understand and the stages through which they develop, they can plan meaningful learning experiences and assess children's progress (Richardson Richardson, city (1990 pop. 74,840), Dallas and Collins counties, N Tex., a suburb of Dallas; founded in the 1850s, inc. as a city 1956. Richardson manufactures telecommunications equipment, medical devices, supercomputers, computer chips, and fiber optics.  & Salkeld Salkeld may refer to:
  • Bill Salkeld
  • Philip Salkeld
See also
  • Blanaid Salkeld
  • Great Salkeld
  • Little Salkeld
  • Salkeld Hall

This page or section lists people with the surname Salkeld.
, 1995). As teachers plan for children's development, they must also take into consideration children's interests and stages of development. It is critical to allow children time for free play that enables them to explore mathematical concepts. While children are engaged in an activity, the teacher can observe and then become active in guiding their learning. This interaction will help the children's progress from behavioral to representational understanding of mathematical concepts. Thus the flexible yet systematic use of the checklists provided here can facilitate preschool teachers A Preschool Teacher is a type of early childhood educator who instructs children from infancy to age 5, which stands as the youngest stretch of early childhood education. Early Childhood Education teachers need to span the continum of children from birth to age 8.  developing children's mathematical knowledge. They also provide a means for the teachers to systematically examine their own practice and make informed decisions about meeting individual children's mathematical learning needs. The following journal entry clearly communicates Laura's own sense of professional growth:
   During this project, I developed skills as a researcher. I
   systematically studied my own practice and made many adjustments
   to accommodate my newfound mathematical abilities. I became adept
   at planning lessons and producing developmentally appropriate math
   activities for children. As I became more knowledgeable and I
   gained some confidence, I began to develop my professional voice.
   Most of the children, their parents, and the administration of my
   school very enthusiastically received the entire project. The
   children's excitement about math was continuous.

Appendix I

Checklist for Preschool Pre-mathematical Concepts
Matching and One-to-One Correspondence

Name of the Child --

Concepts/Stages of Development   Sept.-Oct.   Dec.-Jan.   April-May

Matching related items that
are not alike

1. Matches different but
related items that are not
alike

2. Matches even sets--with 5
or fewer items

3. Matches uneven sets with 5
or more items

4. Uses appropriate vocabulary
while matching sets (e.g., too
many, not enough)

Matching similar items

5. Matches 2 similar items

6. Matches even sets--with 5
or fewer items

7. Matches uneven sets--with
5 or more items

8. Uses appropriate vocabulary
while matching sets that are
alike (e.g., too many,
not enough)

KEY TO CHECKLISTS

[]     Demonstrates behavioral knowledge of the concept
[][]   Demonstrates behavioral and representational knowledge of the
       concept
0      Demonstrates partial behavioral knowledge of the concept
00     Demonstrates partial representational knowedge of the
       concept
X      Does not demonstrate any kind of knowledge of the concept

Appendix II

Checklist for Preschool Pre-mathematical Concepts
Sets of Classification

Name of the Child --

Concepts/Stages of Development   Sept.-Oct.   Dec.-Jan.   April-May

1. Able to group identical
objects

2. Sorts objects by 1
attribute--color, shape, size,
material, pattern, texture

3. Classifies by 2 attributes

4. Classifies by 3 attributes

5. Describes what has been
done while classifying by 1,
2, or 3 attributes

6. Explains what has been
done while classifying by
1, 2, or 3 attributes

7. Classifies according to
function

8. Describes and/or explains
what has been done

9. Classifies according to
association

10. Describes and/or
explains what has been done

11. Understands class
exclusion

12. Understands class
inclusion

13. Describes and/or
explains what has been
done

14. Classifies by number

KEY TO CHECKLISTS

[]     Demonstrates behavioral knowledge of the concept
[][]   Demonstrates behavioral and representational knowledge of the
       concept
0      Demonstrates partial behavioral knowledge of the concept
00     Demonstrates partial representational knowedge of the
       concept
X      Does not demonstrate any kind of knowledge of the concept

Appendix III

Checklist for Preschool Pre-mathematical Concepts
Order and Seriation

Name of the Child --

Concepts/Stages of Development   Sept.-Oct.   Dec.-Jan.   April-May

1. Comparison of opposites
(e.g., long/short, big/small,
etc.)

2. Orders 3 objects in random
order

3. Orders 3 objects by trial
and error

4. Orders 3 objects in a
systematic manner

5. Seriates in reverse order

6. Performs double seriation

7. Describes what has been
done

8. Explains what has been
done

KEY TO CHECKLISTS

[]     Demonstrates behavioral knowledge of the concept
[][]   Demonstrates behavioral and representational knowledge of the
       concept
0      Demonstrates partial behavioral knowledge of the concept
00     Demonstrates partial representational knowedge of the
       concept
X      Does not demonstrate any kind of knowledge of the concept


Acknowledgment acknowledgment, in law, formal declaration or admission by a person who executed an instrument (e.g., a will or a deed) that the instrument is his. The acknowledgment is made before a court, a notary public, or any other authorized person.  

All quotes from the teacher's journal are included with her permission.

References

Baroody, Arthur Arthur, king of Britain: see Arthurian legend.

Arthur

king and hero of Scotland, Wales, and England. [Arthurian Legend: Parrinder, 28]

See : Heroism
 J. (2000). Does mathematics instruction for three- to five-year-olds really make sense? Young Children, 55(4), 61-67.

Berk, Laura E., & Winsler, Adam. (1995). Scaffolding children's learning: Vygotsky and early childhood education. Washington Washington, town, England
Washington, town (1991 pop. 48,856), Sunderland metropolitan district, NE England. Washington was designated one of the new towns in 1964 to alleviate overpopulation in the Tyneside-Wearside area.
, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children. ED 384 443.

Billman, Jean, & Sherman, Janice A. (1996). Observation and participation in early childhood settings. Needham Needham (nēd`əm), town (1990 pop. 27,557), Norfolk co., E Mass., a suburb of Boston; founded 1680, set off from Dedham and inc. 1711. Although largely residential, paper products, electronic equipment, software, and other items are manufactured there.  Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Bodrova, Elena, & Leong, Deborah Deborah (dĕb`ōrə), in the Bible, prophetess and judge of Israel, the only woman to hold that office. Under her guidance Barak conquered Sisera and delivered Israel from the oppression of the Canaanite King Jabin.  J. (1996). Tools of the mind: The Vygotskian approach to early childhood education. Columbus Columbus.

1 City (1990 pop. 178,681), seat of Muscogee co., W Ga., at the head of navigation on the Chattahoochee River; settled and inc. 1828 on the site of a Creek village.
, OH: Merrill Mer·rill   , James 1926-1995.

American poet whose works include Divine Comedies (1976), which won a Pulitzer Prize.
. ED 455 014.

Bredekamp, Sue, & Copple, Carol (Eds.). (1997). Developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood programs (Rev. ed rev.
abbr.
1. revenue

2. reverse

3. reversed

4. review

5. revision

6. revolution


rev.
1. revise(d)

2.
.). Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children. ED 403 023.

Brush, Lorelei Lorelei (lôr`əlī, Ger. lō`rəlī), cliff, 433 ft (132 m) high, on the right bank of the Rhine River, near St. Goarshausen, W Germany, about midway between Koblenz and Bingen.  R. (1972). Children's conception of addition and subtraction subtraction, fundamental operation of arithmetic; the inverse of addition. If a and b are real numbers (see number), then the number ab is that number (called the difference) which when added to b (the subtractor) equals : The relation of formal and informal notions. Unpublished doctoral dissertation dis·ser·ta·tion  
n.
A lengthy, formal treatise, especially one written by a candidate for the doctoral degree at a university; a thesis.


dissertation
Noun

1.
, Cornell University Cornell University, mainly at Ithaca, N.Y.; with land-grant, state, and private support; coeducational; chartered 1865, opened 1868. It was named for Ezra Cornell, who donated $500,000 and a tract of land. With the help of state senator Andrew D. .

Charlesworth, Rosalind Rosalind (rŏz`əlĭnd', rō`zə–), in astronomy, one of the natural satellites, or moons, of Uranus.

Rosalind

her sylvan exile sets scene for comedy. [Br. Lit.
, & Lind, Karen Karen

Any member of a variety of tribal peoples of southern Myanmar (Burma). Constituting the second largest minority in Myanmar, the Karen are not a unitary group in any ethnic sense, as they differ among themselves linguistically, religiously, and economically.
 K. (1999). Math and science for young children (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: Delmar.

Feuerstein, Reuven, & Feuerstein, S. (1991). Mediated me·di·ate  
v. me·di·at·ed, me·di·at·ing, me·di·ates

v.tr.
1. To resolve or settle (differences) by working with all the conflicting parties:
 learning experience: A theoretical review. In Reuven Feuerstein Professor Reuven Feuerstein (born 1921 in Botosan, Romania) (hebrewפוירשטיין) is a Jewish medical doctor of the originator of the theory of Structural Cognitive Modifiability (SCM), the theory of Mediated Learning Experience , Pnina S. Klein Klein , Melanie 1882-1960.

Austrian-born British psychoanalyst who first introduced play therapy and was the first to use psychoanalysis to treat young children.
, & Abraham Abraham [according to the Book of Genesis, Heb.,=father of many nations] or Abram (ā`brəm) [Heb.,=exalted father], in the Bible, progenitor of the Hebrews; in the Qur'an, ancestor of the Arabs.  J. Tannenbaum Tannenbaum is a German word meaning fir tree, usually referring to Christmas trees.

Tannenbaum may refer to:
  • "O Tannenbaum", a Christmas carol of German origin
  • Operation Tannenbaum, the planned invasion of neutral Switzerland by Nazi Germany
 (Eds.), Mediated learning experiences (MLE MLE Maximum Likelihood Estimation
MLE Managed Learning Environment
MLE Maximum Likelihood Estimate
MLE Medical Laboratory Evaluation (Medical Laboratory Proficiency Testing Program, Washington, DC) 
): Theoretical, psychological, and learning implications (pp. 3-51). London London, city, Canada
London, city (1991 pop. 303,165), SE Ont., Canada, on the Thames River. The site was chosen in 1792 by Governor Simcoe to be the capital of Upper Canada, but York was made capital instead. London was settled in 1826.
: Freund Freund (German for friend) is a surname and may refer to:
  • Ernst Freund
  • Gisèle Freund (1912-2000), photographer
  • Jules T. Freund
  • Karl Freund
  • Kurt Freund
  • Michael Freund
  • Steffen Freund, German soccer player
  • Tom Freund
.

Franke, Megan Loef, & Kazemi, Elham. (2001). Learning to teach mathematics: Focus on student thinking. Theory into Practice, 40(2), 102-109. EJ 627 349.

Garvey, Catherine. (1990). Play. Cambridge Cambridge, city, Canada
Cambridge (kām`brĭj), city (1991 pop. 92,772), S Ont., Canada, on the Grand River, NW of Hamilton. It was formed in 1973 with the amalgamation of Galt, Hespeler, and Preston, all founded in the early 19th cent.
, MA: Harvard University Press The Harvard University Press is a publishing house, a division of Harvard University, that is highly respected in academic publishing. It was established on January 13, 1913. In 2005, it published 220 new titles. .

Gelman, Rochel, & Gallistel, C. R. (1978). The child's understanding of number. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Helm, Judy Judy is most commonly a female given name, as well as a shorten form of Judith. It may also refer to:
  • Judy (ship's dog)
  • Yokosuka D4Y - Japanese dive bomber
  • Judy, the pet chimpanzee on the television show Daktari
 Harris Harris, Scotland: see Lewis and Harris. ; Beneke, Sallee; & Steinheimer, Kathy Kathy is a feminine first name. It may refer to:

In sports:
  • Kathy Bald, former international freestyle swimmer from Canada
  • Kathy Smallwood-Cook, the most successful female sprinter in British athletics history
. (1997). Documenting children's learning. Childhood Education, 73(4), 200-205. EJ 544 885.

Howes, Carollee. (1992). The collaborative construction of pretend. Albany Albany, town, Australia
Albany (ăl`bənē), town (1996 pop. 14,590), Western Australia, SW Australia. It is a port on Princess Royal Harbour of King George Sound. The town has woolen mills and fish canneries.
: State University of New York Press The State University of New York Press (or SUNY Press), founded in 1966, is a university press that is part of State University of New York system. External link
  • State University of New York Press
. ED 385 337.

Jacobson, Linda A set of parallel processing functions added to languages, such as C and C++, that allows data to be created and transferred between processes. It was developed by Yale professor David Gelernter, when he was a 23-year old graduate student. . (1998). Experts promote math, science for preschoolers. Education Week [Online], 16(26). Available: http://www.edweek.com/ew/ewstory.cfm? slug=26early.h17&keywords=experts%20promote.

Kamii, Constance Constance, Holy Roman empress
Constance, 1154–98, Holy Roman empress, wife of Holy Roman Emperor Henry VI; daughter of King Roger II of Sicily. She was named heiress of Sicily by her nephew King William II.
. (1982). Number in preschool and kindergarten kindergarten [Ger.,=garden of children], system of preschool education. Friedrich Froebel designed (1837) the kindergarten to provide an educational situation less formal than that of the elementary school but one in which children's creative play instincts would be : Educational implications of Piaget's theory. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children. ED 220 208.

Kaplan, Rochelle Ro`chelle´

n. 1. A seaport town in France.
Rochelle powders
Same as Seidlitz powders.
Rochelle salt
(Chem.) the double tartrate of sodium and potassium, a white crystalline substance.
 G.; Yamamoto, Takashi Takashi is a Japanese given name.

People named Takashi include:
  • Takashi Amano
  • Takashi Aonishi
  • Takashi Asahina
  • Takashi Fujii
  • Takashi Hagino
  • Takashi Hara
  • Takashi Hasegawa
  • Takashi Hashiguchi
  • Takashi Hayase
  • Takashi Hikino
; & Ginsburg Gins·burg   , Ruth Bader Born 1933.

American jurist who was appointed an associate justice of the U.S. Supreme Court in 1993.
, Herbert P. (1989). Teaching mathematical concepts. In Lauren Lauren as a surname may refer to:
  • Ralph Lauren, American fashion designer (changed his last name to Lauren)
Lauren is a given name for a female and more rarely a name for a male.
 B. Resnick Resnick is a surname, and may refer to:
  • Adam Resnick, American comedy writer
  • Alice Robie Resnick, Ohio Supreme Court Justice
  • Charlie Resnick
  • Faye Resnick
  • Josh Resnick
  • Lauren Resnick
  • Mike Resnick, science fiction author
 & Leopold Leopold was the name of many rulers in Europe. (See List of rulers named Leopold)

Leopold may also refer to: People:
  • Leopold Mandić, a Catholic saint
  • Leopold Stokowski, a 20th-century conductor
 E. Klopfer (Eds.), Toward the thinking curriculum: Current cognitive research (pp. 59-82). Alexandria Alexandria, city, Egypt
Alexandria, Arabic Al Iskandariyah, city (1996 pop. 3,328,196), N Egypt, on the Mediterranean Sea. It is at the western extremity of the Nile River delta, situated on a narrow isthmus between the sea and Lake Mareotis (Maryut).
, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development The Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, or ASCD, is a membership-based nonprofit organization founded in 1943. It has more than 175,000 members in 135 countries, including superintendents, supervisors, principals, teachers, professors of education, and . ED 328 871.

Katz, Lilian G., & Chard, Sylvia Sylvia may refer to:
  • a feminine given name of Latin origin, also spelled Silvia.
Persons
  • Sylvia Browne, a controversial American psychic.
  • Sylvia Likens
  • Sylvia Plath, American poet
 C. (2000). Engaging children's minds: The project approach (2nd ed.). Stamford Stamford, town, England
Stamford, town (1991 pop. 18,127), in the Parts of Kesteven, Lincolnshire, E central England, on the Welland River. It is a market town. Products include diesel engines, electrical equipment, bricks, and tiles.
, CT: Ablex. ED 456 892.

Montague-Smith, Ann ANN, Scotch law. Half a year's stipend over and above what is owing for the incumbency due to a minister's relict, or child, or next of kin, after his decease. Wishaw. Also, an abbreviation of annus, year; also of annates. In the old law French writers, ann or rather an, signifies a year. . (1997). Mathematics in nursery education. London, England England, the largest and most populous portion of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (1991 pop. 46,382,050), 50,334 sq mi (130,365 sq km). It is bounded by Wales and the Irish Sea on the west and Scotland on the north. : David Fulton Fulton, city (1990 pop. 10,033), seat of Callaway co., central Mo., in an agricultural and farm area; inc. 1859. It has printing plants and factories that make food products, textiles, and industrial equipment. Firebricks from nearby clay beds are also produced.  Publishers.

Moomaw, Sally, & Hieronymus, Brenda BRENDA Building and Real Estate Network (Belgian) . (1995). More than counting. Whole math activities for preschool and kindergarten. St. Paul St. Paul

as a missionary he fearlessly confronts the “perils of waters, of robbers, in the city, in the wilderness.” [N.T.: II Cor. 11:26]

See : Bravery
, MN: Redleaf Press. ED 386 296.

National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. (1991). Professional standards for teaching mathematics. Reston Reston, uninc. city (1990 pop. 48,556), Fairfax co., N Va., a planned community established in 1961. A suburb of Washington, D.C., Reston is organized in a series of residential villages and commercial areas. , VA: Author. ED 344 779.

National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. (2000). Professional standards for teaching mathematics. Reston, VA: Author.

Payne, Joseph N. (1990). Mathematics for the young child. Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. ED 326 393.

Richardson, Kathy, & Salkeld, Leslie. (1995). Transforming mathematics curriculum. In Sue Bredekamp Virginia Sue Bredekamp is an American early childhood educator.

While serving as Director of Professional Development for the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) from 1984 to 1998, Bredekamp instrumented the development of a national
 & Teresa Rosegrant (Eds.), Reaching potentials: Transforming early childhood curriculum and assessment (Vol. 2, pp. 23-42). Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children. ED 391 598.

Sugarman, Susan. (1983). Children's early thought: Developments in classification. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press Cambridge University Press (known colloquially as CUP) is a publisher given a Royal Charter by Henry VIII in 1534, and one of the two privileged presses (the other being Oxford University Press). .

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes (Michael Cole Michael Sean Coulthard (born December 8, 1968 in Syracuse, New York) better known by his stage name Michael Cole, is the current play-by-play announcer for World Wrestling Entertainment's Friday Night SmackDown!. , Vera John-Steiner, Sylvia Scribner, & Ellen Souberman, Eds. & Trans.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1986). Thought and language (Alex Kozulin, Trans.). Cambridge, MA: MIT MIT - Massachusetts Institute of Technology  Press.

Anna Kirova is an assistant professor in the Department of Elementary Education elementary education
 or primary education

Traditionally, the first stage of formal education, beginning at age 5–7 and ending at age 11–13.
 at the University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. Her research interests are in the areas of teacher professional development through engagement in reflective Refers to light hitting an opaque surface such as a printed page or mirror and bouncing back. See reflective media and reflective LCD.  practice, early learning of mathematical concepts, young children's use of computer technology in gender bias-free classroom environments, and culturally and linguistically diverse children's experiences of loneliness and isolation at school.

Anna Kirova

Assistant Professor

Department of Elementary Education

Faculty of Education

University of Alberta

Edmonton, AB T6G 2G5

Canada

Telephone: 780-492-4273, ext. 263

Fax: 780-492-7622

Email: anna.kirova@ualberta.ca

Ambika Bhargava is an assistant professor in the Department of Human Development and Child Studies at Oakland University History
Oakland University was created in 1957 when Matilda Dodge Wilson, widow of automobile magnate John Francis Dodge, and her second husband Alfred Wilson donated their 1,500-acre estate to Michigan State University, including Meadow Brook Hall, Sunset Terrace and all the
, Rochester, Michigan Rochester is a suburb of Detroit, Michigan in Oakland County in the U.S. state of Michigan. The population was 10,467 at the 2000 census. The City of Rochester is bordered on the north, south, and west by the City of Rochester Hills. . Her research interests focus on the role of the adult in creating conditions that promote learning. Specifically, three branches from this stream relate to the development of mathematical concepts in preschool children, computer usage by young children, and the creation of gender bias-free classroom environments.

Ambika Bhargava

Assistant Professor

Department of Human Development and Child Studies

School of Education and Human Services

Oakland University

Rochester, MI 48309

Email: abhargava@oakland.edu

This article has been accessed 26,244 times through April 1, 2005.

Aprender a guiar el entendimiento matematico de ninos NINOS Pediatrics A clinical trial–Neonatal Inhaled Nitric Oxide Study which evaluated the effect of NO therapy–NOT in hypoxic respiratory failure–HRF in neonates. See Respiratory distress syndrome.  preescolares: el desarrollo profesional de una maestra

Anna Kirova Universidad de Alberta

Ambika Bhargava Universidad de Oakland

Resumen

The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (Consejo Nacional de Maestros de Matematicas) enfatiza que los ninos pequenos necesitan oportunidades para jugar a fin de desarrollar y profundizar su entendimiento conceptual de la matematica. Desde una perspectiva social-constructivista, es mas probable que ocurra el aprendizaje si los adultos o los companeros con mas aptitud sirven de intermediarios en las experiencias de aprendizaje de un nino. Enfatizando tanto Tanto may refer to several things. Please see:
  • Tantō - A Japanese weapon
  • Tanto, Stockholm - A district of Stockholm, Sweden.
See also: Tonto.
 la perspectiva del desarrollo como la curricular, este articulo articulo /ar·tic·u·lo/ (ahr-tik´u-lo) [L.] at the moment, or crisis.

articulo mor´tis  at the point or moment of death.
 se enfoca en el papel del maestro en guiar el aprendizaje matematica de los ninos preescolares mientras juegan con objetos de la vida comun. Se identificaron tres areas de desarrollo profesional como esenciales para que los maestros aprendieran a guiar el aprendizaje de ninos pequenos de conceptos matematicos. La primera es la capacidad de reconocer el entendimiento de conceptos matematicos que los ninos demuestran, la segunda La Segunda ("The Second") is a Chilean afternoon daily owned by El Mercurio SAP. External link
  • Official site
 es la capacidad de usar lenguaje matematico para guiar el progreso The municipality of El Progreso is located in the Honduran department of Yoro. East of the city, is located: Ramon Villeda Morales international airport of San Pedro Sula. To the west of the city is found the mountain range of Mico Quemado (Burned Monkey).  desde el entendimiento comportamental al representacional de conceptos matematicos, y la tercera La Tercera (Spanish: "The Third"), formerly known as La Tercera de la Hora, is a daily newspaper published in Santiago, Chile and owned by Copesa. It is El Mercurio's closest competitor. External link
  • La Tercera Online
 es la capacidad de evaluar sistematicamente el entendimiento de los ninos de los conceptos matematicos. Se sugieren listas de verificacion que siguen el desarrollo de tres conceptos matematicos fundamentales--la correspondencia uno-a-uno, la clasificacion, y la seriacion--como herramientas docentes para examinar el aprendizaje de conceptos matematicos de ninos preescolares y planear experiencias de aprendizaje apropiadas dentro de las zonas de desarrollo proximo prox·i·mo  
adv. Archaic
Of or in the following month.



[Latin proxim (m
 de los ninos. Creando un ambiente que fomenta las habilidades matematicas de los ninos, y mediando las experiencias de los ninos en este ambiente, se establece el fundamento para construir, modificar e integrar los conceptos matematicos de los ninos pequenos.

Introduccion

Laura acaba de terminar de leer a su clase preescolar el cuento "Goldilocks y los tres Los Tres ("The Three") is a Chilean rock band composed actually by four, not three, members: a rock/pop singer and 3 jazzmen. It was one of the most famous, successful and important bands in the Chilean nineties, together with La Ley and Lucybell.  osos." Anuncia que ya es hora ho·ra also ho·rah  
n.
A traditional round dance of Romania and Israel.



[Modern Hebrew h
 de juego libre. Rachel, de cuatro cuat·ro  
n. pl. cuat·ros
A small guitarlike instrument of Latin America, usually having four or five pairs of strings.



[Spanish, from Latin quattuor, four; see quatrain.]
 anos, mira alrededor del salon Salon, annual exhibition of art works chosen by jury and presented by the French Academy since 1737; it was originally held in the Salon d'Apollon of the Louvre. By the mid-19th cent. the Salon had become an expression of conservative, established tastes in art.  por un rato y se dirige al centro para el juego dramatico y el hacer de casa. Hoy Hoy, island, 13 mi (21 km) long and 6 mi (9.7 km) wide, off N Scotland, second largest of the Orkney Islands. It is located at the southwestern side of the Scapa Flow anchorage.  este centro esta equipado con munecas, otros juguetes suaves, tazas, platos, cuchilleria de plastico, alimentos de plastico, una mesa Mesa, city, United States
Mesa (mā`sə), city (1990 pop. 288,091), Maricopa co., S central Ariz., in the irrigated Salt River valley; inc. 1883.
, sillas, y ropa para jugar de aparentar. Rachel toma una camisa grande y mete los pies en unos "zapatos de Mami." Despues saca de la coleccion tres ositos de varios tamanos y los coloca alrededor de la mesa La Mesa (lə mā`sə), city (1990 pop. 52,931), San Diego co., S Calif., a suburb of San Diego; inc. 1912. It is a retail center and a popular residence for upper- and middle-income professionals in the San Diego area. . Mientras sienta los ositos en tres sillas, dice susurrando, "Tu eres el oso Papi (escogiendo el osito mas grande), tu eres la osa Mami (escogiendo el osito de tamano medio), y tu eres el oso Nene Nene (nēn, nĕn) or Nen (nĕn), river, c.90 mi (140 km) long, rising in the Northampton Uplands, central England, and flowing NE past Northampton, Oundle, Peterborough, and Wisbech to the Wash.  (escogiendo el mas pequeno). Rachel entonces va a la estanteria y saca un plato, colocandolo ante el osito Papi; vuelve a la estanteria para traer un segundo plato y lo coloca ante la osita Mami; y da una ultima vuelta para ir por un plato para colocar ante el osito Nene. Despues Rachel va a la estanteria y toma una coleccion de cucharas de diferentes tamanos. Ya se acerca Tiffany, de la edad de cinco anos, quien le dice que el osito mas grande necesita la cuchara mas grande, el de tamano medio la cuchara de tamano medio, y el osito nene la cuchara mas pequena. "?Te acuerdas? Como el cuento que la Sra. Laura nos leyo." Rachel le mira a Tiffany y entonces a las cucharas, y despues coloca una cuchara ante cada osito al azar. Tiffany inmediatamente se hace cargo y arregla las cucharas de nuevo, de acuerdo con el tamano de los ositos. Rachel observa por unos segundos y luego se va.

Aunque no seria raro observar un episodio de juego como este en muchos salones preescolares, tuvo un impacto particularmente fuerte en como entendia Laura el conocimiento matematico de sus estudiantes. Como miembro nuevo del grupo local del Consejo Nacional de Maestros de Matematicas (NCTM segun sus siglas en ingles This article is about an American supermarket chain. For a town in Gran Canaria, see Playa del Inglés.

Ingles (NYSE: IMKTA) is a regional supermarket chain based in Asheville, North Carolina, where Robert "Bob" Ingle opened the first store in Asheville, NC in
), Laura llego a interesarse particularmente en el desarrollo de conceptos matematicos de parte de sus estudiantes. Se daba cuenta que el crecimiento mas notable de conocimiento matematico ocurre entre el grado El Grado is a municipality located in the province of Huesca, Aragon, Spain. According to the 2004 census (INE), the municipality has a population of 511 inhabitants.  de pre-kindergarten y el segundo El Segundo (ĕl sēgŭn`dō), industrial city (1990 pop. 15,223), Los Angeles co., S Calif., on Santa Monica Bay; inc. 1917. Its products include navigation and computer systems, aircraft parts, office machines, telephone apparatus, and  de primaria, y que era especialmente importante en esta etapa enfocarse en guiar el desarrollo de los ninos de conceptos matematicos fundamentales. Sin embargo embargo (ĕmbär`gō), prohibition by a country of the departure of ships or certain types of goods from its ports. Instances of confining all domestic ships to port are rare, and the Embargo Act of 1807 is the sole example of this in , la falta de un concertado curriculo matematico preescolar le dificulto a Laura decidir cuales conceptos eran los mas apropiados para sus ninos preescolares. Asi como muchos maestros mas, Laura lucho por comprender el desarrollo del aprendizaje matematico de sus estudiantes y relacionarlo con sus decisiones sobre la instruccion (Franke y Kazemi, 2001). Escribio en su diario:
   La ensenanza de las matematicas siempre ha quedado fuera de mi
   "zona comoda." Para reforzar los conceptos de la correspondencia
   uno-a-uno, la clasificacion y la seriacion, son utiles muchos
   juegos matematicos comerciales e ideados por maestros, como los
   conjuntos de animales, frutas, vehiculos, y formas geometricas;
   juegos de tablero de cuenta; juegos de tablero de clasificacion; y
   varios dados grandes y agujas giratorias. Sin embargo, cuando se
   usan al azar y por separados, estos juegos tal vez no ayuden a los
   ninos a captar plenamente los conceptos matematicos en que se
   basan. Tengo que hacer mas que aportar algun tipo de aprendizaje
   matematico; necesito de veras tener un curriculo matematico bien
   pensado. He probado actividades matematicas que esperaba que
   fomentaran el aprendizaje. Hice graficas con los ninos en una
   colchoneta grande. Les hice que cada uno se quitara un zapato y
   decidiera donde colocarlo segun el color. Me parecia que esta
   actividad seria divertida y practica, pero los ninos estaban
   agitados y aburridos. Desplegue pequenos objetos de manipuleo con
   propiedades similares para que los ninos los exploraran y pusieran
   en receptaculos. Les anime a traer colecciones de hojas para la
   mesa de ciencia, y les platique de los colores y las formas.
   Aunque los ninos exploraban los objetos, yo sentia que era un reto
   encontrar una manera de evaluar lo que aprendian los ninos y como
   desarrollar mas su conocimiento.


Como es evidente segun esta anotacion en su diario, Laura sentia la necesidad de un fuerte sistema conceptual que tomaria en consideracion las caracteristicas del desarrollo de los ninos preescolares y que indicaria los ambientes que fomentaran sus capacidades matematicas naturales. Tal sistema podria ayudar a Laura a decidir cuales conceptos matematicos eran apropiados para sus estudiantes y la orden en que deberian ensenarse. Laura se daba cuenta que estas decisiones tenian que basarse en su conocimiento del desarrollo de los conceptos matematicos y en una evaluacion apropiada de los conocimientos matematicos infantiles. Tambien se percataba que los programas preescolares tenian que extender See Media Center Extender, bus extender and DOS extender.  y profundizar el conocimiento conceptual que los ninos pequenos ya han desarrollado para los 3 anos de edad (Payne, 1990). Las pautas nuevas (2000) del NCTM recalcan que todo nino preescolar necesita oportunidades para explorar su mundo y experimentar la matematica jugando. Saber esto, sin embargo, dejaba a Laura con mas preguntas que respuestas. Escribio en su diario:
   ?Como usar el jugar y los materiales para jugar a fin de aumentar
   el aprendizaje de conceptos primarios de la matematica? En mi
   papel de facilitar el aprendizaje, ?como puedo hacer a los ninos
   participar en actividades que les permitan progresar en construir
   los conceptos matematicos? ?Cual es el orden en que los conceptos
   matematicos se desarrollan? ?Cuales son los conceptos y
   habilidades principales de matematica que los ninos preescolares
   tienen que desarrollar para darles una base solida para tener
   exito mas tarde en la matematica en la escuela? ?Como proporciono
   con seguridad a cada nino las oportunidades para aprender a su
   propio paso como individuo? ?Que tipo de evaluacion continua sera
   mas util en planear un curriculo matematico apropiado para el
   desarrollo? ?Como puedo extender mas el conocimiento y las
   habilidades de los ninos en la matematica mejorando mis propios
   metodos y desarrollando mi conocimiento de como ensenar la
   matematica?


Al observar el episodio del juego de Rachel y Tiffany, Laura pudo concentrar sus esfuerzos en las siguientes preguntas especificas:

* ?Cuales conceptos matematicos exhibian Rachel y Tiffany mientras jugaban?

* ?Como puedo guiar el aprendizaje de ellas para que su entendimiento de estos conceptos avance hacia un nivel mas alto?

* ?Estan otros ninos de mi clase en la misma etapa que Rachel en cuanto a algunos de estos conceptos?

Con estas preguntas en la mente, Laura emprendio su proyecto de maestria. Ya que teniamos un interes investigador en el aprendizaje temprano de conceptos matematicos, nos hicimos las directoras de Laura. En aquel entonces, nuestra propia investigacion estaba en la etapa de desarrollar una serie de herramientas de evaluacion amenas a los maestros para facilitar el planeamiento del curriculo en la materia materia /ma·te·ria/ (mah-ter´e-ah) [L.] matter.

materia al´ba  whitish deposits on the teeth, composed of mucus and epithelial cells containing bacteria and filamentous organisms.
 de la matematica. Este proyecto fue una oportunidad emocionante para que Laura profundizara su entendimiento del aprendizaje de los ninos pequenos de la matematica. Para nosotras, el proyecto de Laura fue una oportunidad para implementar y documentar el uso de estas herramientas en un salon de clase preescolar y recibir la retrocomunicacion de ella sobre la suficiencia y utilidad de estas para evaluar continuamente el desarrollo de los ninos pequenos de los conceptos matematicos principales. Siendo las directoras de Laura, podiamos documentar, por medio de observaciones y un analisis de sus notas en el diario El Diario is a common name for newspapers in Spanish-speaking countries. It is Spanish for "The Daily".

Examples include:
  • El Diario (Bolivia)
  • El Diario (Ecuador)
  • El Diario (Mexico) (Chihuahua)
  • Diario (Aruba)
, el desarrollo de sus pensamientos sobre el aprendizaje de ninos pequenos de conceptos matematicos, y el crecimiento de su entendimiento de la necesidad de alinear el curriculo, la instruccion, y la evaluacion. En este articulo, enfocaremos en las areas principales de crecimiento en el desarrollo profesional de Laura que creemos ser posiblemente utiles en el crecimiento de otros maestros de ninos preescolares.

Aprender a reconocer el entendimiento demostrado por los ninos de los conceptos matematicos

La etapa primera, la mas importante en el desarrollo profesional de Laura, fue la de su capacidad aumentada de identificar el entendimiento demostrado por los ninos de los conceptos matematicos. Su observacion de la representacion de Rachel y Tiffany del cuento "Goldilocks y los tres osos" le llamo la atencion de Laura a "las impresionantes fuerzas matematicas informales" (Baroody, 2000, p. 61) que los ninos pequenos traen al salon de clase. Ella vio que en este episodio Rachel demostro su conocimiento comportamental, es decir, el saber como representar procedimientos y papeles, e implementar varios conceptos matematicos (Katz y Chard, 2000). Por ejemplo, el que escogio solo los osos de una coleccion mas grande de munecas y juguetes de peluche demostro su conocimiento comportamental del concepto matematico de la clasificacion. La provision de un plato para cada oso y un oso para cada silla demostro su conocimiento de la correspondencia uno-a-uno; la colocacion de los osos en orden del mas grande al mas pequeno mostro su conocimiento comportamental de la seriacion. Tiffany tambien demostro su conocimiento comportamental de la seriacion doble al arreglar las cucharas de nuevo para corresponder con el tamano de los osos despues de que Rachel las habia colocado al azar. Mas importantemente, sin embargo, Tiffany demostro su capacidad de comunicar de manera verbal lo que habia que hacer para que cada oso recibiera la cuchara del tamano apropiado. La conciencia elevada de Laura del contexto matematico de la interaccion entre las dos ninas le ayudo a reconocer las diferentes etapas que habian alcanzado en el desarrollo de su conocimiento de la seriacion. Se dio cuenta ademas que los ninos pequenos expresan su conocimiento matematico en una variedad de contextos que no necesariamente se relacionan con las "actividades matematicas." Como resultado, podia planear tanto experiencias de aprendizaje individualmente apropiadas como experiencias en conjunto con·jun·to  
n. pl. con·jun·tos
1. A dance band, especially in Latin America.

2. A style of popular dance music originating along the border between Texas and Mexico, characterized by the use of accordion, drums,
 en que podian aprender uno del otro. Tambien podia fomentar el aprendizaje informal de la matematica creando un ambiente rico en estimulos matematicos y platicando con los ninos sobre temas matematicos mientras interactuaban con el ambiente.

Aprender a usar el lenguaje para guiar a los ninos en la construccion de conceptos matematicos

La siguiente etapa del desarrollo profesional de Laura fue marcada por un cambio en su entendimiento del papel de los maestros en el aprendizaje de los ninos preescolares de los conceptos matematicos. Segun la tradicion, la enfasis en los ambientes preescolares ha sido en como se adquieren los conceptos, no en lo que se ha de ensenar. Kagan (citado en Jacobson, 1998, p. 12) senalo, "Nos hemos acercado [a la formacion temprana] mas desde las perspectivas del desarrollo y no desde las perspectivas curriculares. Necesitamos las dos."

El paradigma constructivista basado en la teoria de Piaget Pia·get , Jean 1896-1980.

Swiss child psychologist noted for his studies of intellectual and cognitive development in children.
 del desarrollo cognoscitivo ha proporcionado por mucho tiempo la estructura teorica para la practica educativa en la que los ninos adquirian conceptos mediante la interaccion activa con el ambiente y construian su propio conocimiento mientras exploraban sus alrededores. La aplicacion de esta teoria a la matematica ha culminado en el uso de materiales de manipuleo que permiten a los ninos pequenos a contar, participar en el aprendizaje activo, y desarrollar conceptos (Kaplan, Yamamoto, y Ginsberg, 1989). Se ha percibido que el maestro tiene el papel de proveer una variedad de materiales y arreglar un ambiente rico en materiales y opciones. Sin embargo, en la version modificada de los principios de la practica apropiada para el desarrollo (Bredekamp y Copple, 1997), los lideres de la National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC, Asociacion Nacional para la Educacion de Ninos Pequenos) reconocieron que se ha malinterpretado la enfasis en proveer una variedad de opciones en el salon de clase y evitar el instruir a los ninos en habilidades especificas. Como resultado, en los ambientes preescolares, los materiales de manipuleo tipicamente se usaban de manera no sistematica que permitia una situacion doblemente aleatoria: primero pri·me·ro  
n.
A gambling card game, popular in Elizabethan England.



[Alteration of Spanish primera, feminine of primero, first, from Latin
, por el aspecto del material manipulativo por si, y segundo, por las variaciones en la capacidad de los ninos de registrarlo (Feuerstein y Feuerstein, 1991). Esta situacion aleatoria podia haber prevenido que ocurriera el aprendizaje conceptual autentico para muchos ninos que de otro modo podrian haber sido incluidos en actividades planeadas para el aprendizaje. Aunque el aprendizaje de alta calidad en los anos preescolares frecuentemente sucede de manera informal, esta informalidad no implica un programa sin planeamiento o sin sistema. El aprendizaje preescolar de la matematica deberia provocar al pensamiento, abarcar oportunidades para aprender activamente, y ser rico en lenguaje matematico. Mas recientemente, las pautas del NCTM (2000) tratan la cuestion del contenido matematico, el proceso matematico, y la importancia de presentar a los ninos pequenos el lenguaje y las convenciones de la matematica.

Asi que recientemente se ha percibido como decisivo el papel del maestro en el aprendizaje activo. El maestro les facilita el aprendizaje a los ninos creando un ambiente que faculta el aprendizaje de la matematica (NCTM, 1991). La estructura teorica que influyo en este cambio era la teoria social-constructivista del desarrollo cognoscitivo de Vygotsky (1978, 1986). Segun esta teoria, es mas probable que ocurra el aprendizaje si los adultos o ninos mayores median las experiencias de aprender de los ninos pequenos (Baroody, 2000). Vygotsky creia en un continuo continuo
 or basso continuo

In Baroque music, a special subgroup of an instrumental ensemble. It consists of two instruments reading the same part: a bass instrument, such as a cello or bassoon, and a chordal instrument, most often a harpsichord but sometimes
 de aprendizaje caracterizado por la distancia entre la capacidad de un nino para resolver un problema independientemente, y su capacidad para resolver un problema "con la ayuda maxima" bajo la guia de un adulto u otro nino con mas experiencia. Designo esta area donde ocurre el aprendizaje autentico la "zona del desarrollo proximo" (ZPD, segun sus siglas en ingles). El papel del maestro es, por lo tanto, uno de proporcionar "ayuda andamio" (Berk y Winsler, 1995), la cual implica la modificacion continua con·tin·u·a  
n.
A plural of continuum.
 de las tareas para aportar el nivel apropiado de desafio que permite aprender al nino. El adulto cambia la cualidad del apoyo durante Durante, family: see Duran.  una sesion de ensenanza, ajustando la asistencia para corresponder al nivel de rendimiento del nino (Berk y Winsler, 1995). Los ninos aprenden por medio de experiencias educativas significativas, naturalistas, y activas. El adulto tiene que basarse en este conocimiento y llevar al nino a niveles niveles (nē·velˑ·es),
n.pl in Curanderismo, the Mexican-American healing system, the term for ‘levels,’ with regard to the type of healing.
 mas avanzados de entendimiento.

Ya que habia adoptado el punto de vista Vygotskiano del aprendizaje, Laura empezo a comprender que tenia tenia /te·nia/ (te´ne-ah) pl. te´niae   taenia.

te·ni·a
n.
Variant of taenia.



tenia

pl. teniae [L.] a flat band or strip of soft tissue.
 que decidir cuales oportunidades adicionales-no solo en cuanto a los materiales, sino, aun mas importante, en cuanto a las interacciones-ella tenia que proveerles a Rachel, Tiffany, y los demas ninos de su clase. Solo de esta manera podria desarrollar y extender significativamente su entendimiento de la matematica. Escribio en su diario:
   Necesito hacer mas matematicamente rico el ambiente fisico de mi
   salon de clase. Los muebles son del tamano nino y facilmente
   adaptables para acomodar el trabajo cooperativo. Hay espacio
   adecuado y comodo en el suelo, parcialmente cubierto por
   alfombras, para que exploren, construyan, y manipulen materiales
   concretos. Materiales matematicos y de manipuleo se almacenan en
   recipientes transparentes en estanterias abiertas y marcadas con
   dibujos, al alcance facil de los ninos. Ahora tengo la intencion
   de aumentar la comprension matematica de los ninos ayudando su
   construccion de conocimiento de la correspondencia uno-a-uno, la
   clasificacion, y la seriacion.


Para guiar el aprendizaje de los ninos de los conceptos que se demostraron durante el episodio de juego libre, Laura comenzo a ver la necesidad de participar en una variedad de situaciones que producen un lenguaje comun relacionado con la matematica (Franke y Kazemi, 2001). Por ejemplo, podiamos observar sus conversaciones diarias con los ninos que incluian comparaciones de cosas opuestas durante el tiempo El Tiempo (English: The Time) is the highest circulation daily newspaper in Colombia and the only non-tabloid daily with national distribution.  libre para jugar. Los ninos y la maestra platicaban sobre cuales bloques eran mas grandes o mas pequenas, y cuales cabian mejor en las estanterias: los pequenos, de tamano medio, o grandes. Tambien hicieron una costumbre diaria la discusion del orden: quien era la primera persona persona /per·so·na/ (per-so´nah) [L.] in jungian psychology, the personality mask or facade presented by a person to the outside world, as opposed to the anima, the inner being.

per·so·na
n.
 en la cola, quien era la segunda, y quien era la ultima o el furgon, la persona que llevaba las meriendas.

El lenguaje permite tanto la adquisicion de informacion nueva como la asimilacion de ideas y procesos complejos (Bodrova y Leong, 1996). Preguntas abiertas pueden fomentar el pensamiento extendido. "?Que mas?" o "Me pregunto que pasaria si..." puede llamarles la atencion de los ninos a nuevas maneras de pensar e interactuar. Kamii (1982) explica que es importante permitir a los ninos que estan construyendo su propio conocimiento matematico hacerlo sin que el maestro recalque la "correccion" ni corrija la "incorreccion" de la respuesta del nino. El desacuerdo con los companeros puede estimular al nino a reexaminar la correccion de su propio pensamiento. Las interacciones sociales mediante juegos en grupo son una fuente excelente de la construccion de nuevas ideas matematicas y pueden resultar en que los ninos hagan nuevas conexiones y expandan su propio razonamiento. Esta interaccion les ayuda a hacerse mas independientes y menos propensos a contar con el maestro como el unico fuente de las respuestas.

Si las situaciones de aprendizaje se organizaran y se basaran en la secuencia del desarrollo de los conceptos matematicos, el curriculo reflejaria la etapa actual del entendimiento de los ninos y proporcionaria posibilidades para que cada nino adelantara el desarrollo a su propio ritmo. Segun Katz y Chard (2000), la comprension de "como se desarrolla el conocimiento, que pueden [los ninos] entender, y como entienden sus experiencias mientras prosigue el desarrollo es otra basis para planear el curriculo" (p. 26). Asi que para llevar a Rachel y Tiffany del conocimiento comportamental al representacional (p. ej. representaciones mentales o simbolicas de los conceptos abstraidos de experiencias directas y/o indirectas), Laura necesitaba planear cuidadosamente no solo el arreglo fisico de su salon de clase, sino mas importantemente sus interacciones con ellas de modo que les ayudara a progresar por las etapas de la representacion de los conceptos matematicos.

Aprender a evaluar el entendimiento de los ninos de conceptos matematicos

Igual que la mayoria de los educadores, Laura buscaba maneras de mejorar la alineacion del curriculo, la instruccion, y la evaluacion. Mientras trabajaba en su proyecto de maestria, comenzo a pensar en un nivel mas elevado sobre el lazo Lazo may refer to:
  • Sergey Lazo, a Moldovan revolutionary
  • Pedro Luis Lazo, a prominent pitcher for the Cuban national baseball team
  • Lazo (musician), a musician from Dominica
  • Lazo District, a district in Khabarovsk Krai, Russia
 entre el curriculo y la evaluacion. Comprendio que si el proposito de la evaluacion era el permitir a los maestros a tomar decisiones apropiadas para mejorar el entendimiento y aprendizaje de los estudiantes de los conceptos matematicos, su propio entendimiento profundo de estos conceptos, datos, principios, y procesos claves Claves(pronounces Clar-vays) is a percussion instrument (idiophone), consisting of a pair of short (about 20-30 cm), thick dowels. Traditionally they were made of wood, but nowadays they are also made of fibreglass or plastics due to the longer durability of these materials.  era esencial para planear experiencias apropiadas en el curriculo y en el salon de clase. De ahi que para guiar el aprendizaje de los ninos de los conceptos matematicos, necesitaba ella ser completamente versada en la secuencia del desarrollo de los conceptos que los ninos aprenden. Solo entonces podria evaluar el nivel actual del entendimiento de conceptos matematicos de los ninos y planear las experiencias en la zona de desarrollo proximo de ellos.

Laura se daba cuenta, sin embargo, que el conocimiento teorico de por si era insuficiente para ensenar eficazmente; necesitaria herramientas apropiadas para evaluar tal aprendizaje. La evaluacion y la documentacion del trabajo de los ninos podrian ayudarla a planear experiencias apropiadas para el desarrollo y, aun mas importante, experiencias individualmente apropiadas que fomentaran el aprendizaje de los ninos. Es muy aceptado entre los profesionales de la ninez temprana que la observacion es el metodo mas adecuado para evaluar los ninos preescolares y que el juego ofrece un contexto perfecto per·fec·to  
n. pl. per·fec·tos
A cigar of standard length, thick in the center and tapered at each end.



[From Spanish, perfect, from Latin perfectus; see perfect.]
 para observar a los ninos y cerciorar su conocimiento y entendimiento (Garvey, 1990; Howes, 1992).

Las secciones siguientes esbozan como Laura uso el conocimiento teorico de la secuencia del desarrollo de los conceptos matematicos que demostraron Rachel y Tiffany en el episodio de juego para evaluar y guiar el aprendizaje de todos los estudiantes de estos conceptos. Los conceptos constan de (1) el aparejar y la correspondencia uno-a-uno, (2) los conjuntos y la clasificacion, y (3) el orden y la seriacion. El desarrollo infantil de estos conceptos se adelanta por varias etapas. Compilamos estas etapas en una lista de verificacion, y Laura uso de esta lista en su proyecto.

Concepto #1: El aparejar y la correspondencia uno-a-uno

Como se discutio antes an·te  
n.
1. Games The stake that each poker player must put into the pool before receiving a hand or before receiving new cards. See Synonyms at bet.

2.
, la colocacion de Rachel de un plato para cada oso demostro su entendimiento del concepto del aparejar y la correspondencia uno-a-uno. Tipicamente, los ninos de 2 a 4 anos de edad desarrollan este entendimiento mediante las relaciones de "mas-menos-igual" (Brush, 1972; Gelman y Gallistel, 1978). El aparejar es un requisito previo para la conservacion; es uno de los primeros conceptos matematicos que se desarrollan y forma forma,
adj/n minor elements between the members of a botanical species.
 el fundamento para el desarrollo del raciocinio logico. La correspondencia uno-a-uno es el componente fundamental del concepto del numero. Consta del entendimiento que un grupo esta compuesto del mismo numero de cosas que otro. Es tanto preliminar al contar como basico para el entendimiento de la equivalencia y el concepto de la conservacion de numero (Charlesworth y Lind, 1999; Montague-Smith, 1997). Una vez que los ninos entienden la correspondencia basica uno-a-uno, pueden aplicar este concepto a actividades mas avanzadas que incluyen la equivalencia y la idea de "mas o menos" (vease el Apendice I).

Utilizando la lista de verificacion, Laura pudo identificar la etapa del entendimiento de Rachel del concepto de la correspondencia como la de "aparejar conjuntos uniformes de objetos que estan relacionados o que van juntos, pero que no son iguales." A fin de apoyar y guiar el aprendizaje de Rachel hasta en siguiente nivel del mismo concepto, Laura proporciono oportunidades para que aparejara equipos no uniformes de cinco o mas objetos. Se valio de toda oportunidad para unirse a Rachel en el area de jugar a "casa." Usando objetos comunes (en cantidades pares PARES. A man's equals; his peers. (q.v.) 3 Bl. Com. 349.  y no pares) que Rachel conocia, como las tazas y los platillos, las cucharas y los tenedores, las palas y las cubetas, o conjuntos de animales de plastico, Laura pudo identificar la capacidad de Rachel para aparejar objetos que son o no son iguales. Cuando el uso de Rachel de estos materiales no indicaba un patron claro, Laura le hacia preguntas especificas. Por ejemplo, Laura llevo a la clase unos animales de plastico para agregarlos a los ositos y empleo recipientes pequenos. En un momento oportuno del juego, ella le pidio a Rachel que encontrara un animal para cada recipiente. Despues de repetidas interacciones de esta indole indole /in·dole/ (in´dol) a compound obtained from coal tar and indigo and produced by decomposition of tryptophan in the intestine, where it contributes to the peculiar odor of feces. It is excreted in the urine in the form of indican. , Laura observo a Rachel jugando en la mesa de "agua", colocando una rana en cada hoja de plastico en el agua. Laura tambien observo que en la mesa de meriendas, Rachel coloco con cuidado una taza al lado de una servilleta de papel para cada nino.

Para conducir a Rachel del conocimiento comportamental al representacional, Laura se cuido de usar expresiones relacionadas con el concepto del aparejar y la correspondencia uno-a-uno. Las interacciones sociales ricas con maestros y companeros mas competentes pueden contribuir a las oportunidades infantiles de aprender y de desarrollar el conocimiento comportamental en el representacional. La capacidad de los ninos para usar palabras como "no suficiente" y "demasiados" mostrarian su entendimiento en el nivel mas avanzado del aparejar y la correspondencia uno-a-uno. El uso de la literatura infantil tambien facilito el desarrollo del lenguaje relacionado con los conceptos matematicos.

Ya que la correspondencia uno-a-uno significa que cierto grupo tiene un numero igual de cosas que otro, el objetivo de Laura era el de ayudar no solo a Rachel sino tambien a todos los ninos de su clase a ver la relacion en cualquier conjunto de materiales. Como resultado, Laura convirtio la hora de recoger el salon en un importante "momento matematico" introduciendo un juego de aparejar. Pidio a los ninos que colocaran un objeto en un recipiente o en una estanteria. Al hacer esta actividad, habian de aparejar objeto a objeto, objeto a dibujo, y dibujo a dibujo (vease el Apendice I). Tambien presento los varios juegos comerciales y actividades de aparejar hechas por otros maestros y disponibles a los ninos en la hora de juego libre. Estas ultimas abarcaban canastas de objetos pequenos, bandejas divididas, tenazas (opcionales, dependiendo de la motricidad fina de cada nino), y un dado de uno a tres o uno a seis. Dichas actividades presentaban el concepto del aparejar: un objeto se pone See pwn.  en cada seccion de la bandeja. Una actividad que disfrutaban mucho los ninos de la clase de Laura era la de sacar unas canicas de una canasta canasta: see rummy.
canasta

Form of rummy, using two full decks, in which players or partnerships try to meld groups of three or more cards of the same rank and score bonuses for seven-card melds.
 con una cuchara de draga para hacer bolas bo·la   also bo·las
n.
A rope with weights attached, used especially in South America to catch cattle or game by entangling their legs.



[From American Spanish bolas, pl.
 de melon, y colocar una canica en cada compartimiento de una cubeta de hielo. Laura escribio en su diario, "Esta actividad es tan popular que tengo que tomar nombres para una lista de espera para aquellos ninos que quieren jugar el juego de la canica una y otra vez."

Conforme los ninos se hacian mas diestros respecto a sus habilidades con la correspondencia uno-a-uno, Laura les presento juegos de cuadricula y de camino corto. Los juegos de cuadricula constan de tarjetas como las de bingo (sin letras ni numeros) que se usan junto jun·to  
n. pl. jun·tos
A small, usually secret group united for a common interest.



[Alteration of junta.
 con dados o giradores y contadores (Moomaw y Hieronymus, 1995). Teddy Bear Bingo y Candy Land Bingo son ejemplos de juegos de cuadricula comerciales. Estos juegos permitian a Laura observar los diferentes niveles en que estaban los ninos en cuanto al desarrollo del aparejar y la correspondencia uno-a-uno. A algunos ninos les presentaba un reto contar los puntos en los dados; o contaban dos veces u omitian unos puntos. Rachel, por ejemplo, conto hasta seis como "uno, dos, tres; uno, dos, tres." Para otros contar no planteaba ningun problema. Hasta podian usar el lenguaje matematico, no solo para explicar lo que hacian sino tambien para predecir lo que necesitaban para ganar el juego. Megan dijo, "Tengo seis, ahora me faltan tres nada mas," y Tiffany dijo, "Uno mas dos son tres, ya solo necesito cuatro mas." Ya que habia observado a Tiffany, Laura le pregunto si le gustaria jugar el juego de cuadricula con Rachel. Tiffany, a quien le gustaba muchisimo el juego y buscaba toda oportunidad para jugarlo, acepto sin demora. Durante la interaccion entre las dos ninas, Tiffany le dijo a Rachel, "!Asi no se cuentan estos! Mira. Se hace asi (senalando cada punto con un lapiz y diciendo 'uno, dos, tres, cuatro, cinco')." Despues de varias repeticiones, Rachel ya pudo contar a seis sin ayuda.

En los juegos de camino, los ninos tiran uno o mas dados para avanzar un indicador en un camino de espacios distintamente separados. Moomaw y Hieronymus (1995) afirman que "los juegos de camino incorporan las estrategias de pensamiento necesarias para los juegos de cuadriculas de nivel mas dificil y colocan enfasis adicional sobre las interacciones sociales con los maestros y companeros" (p. 117). El primer prim·er
n.
A segment of DNA or RNA that is complementary to a given DNA sequence and that is needed to initiate replication by DNA polymerase.
 juego de camino corto cubria el camino con fichas de bingo para ayudar a la ardilla a hallar unas nueces. Se usaban los dados de uno a seis (Figura I). Todos los ninos podian entender el concepto del juego de camino corto con un comienzo y un fin.

[FIGURE 1 OMITTED]

La siguiente actividad de camino corto era mas compleja. El juego de culebra usaba cubos Unifix como indicadores y el girador de uno a seis. El juego de culebra era mas dificil para los ninos que todavia no habian dominado la habilidad de aparejar conjuntos desiguales de cinco o mas objetos. Rachel, por ejemplo, tenia dificultades en aparejar el cubo Unifix con el cuadrado correspondiente. Los cuadrados seguian la forma de una "s", y esta forma la confundia. Ella omitia unos cuadrados y perdio la cuenta al sumar los cubos. No pudo terminar el juego. Tiffany, por otra parte, ya podia predecir, "!Tengo tres, y ya necesito solo uno mas!" Tambien contaba los cuadrados para ver cuantos la faltaban para acabarse. Ella jugo el juego varias veces con gran entusiasmo. Sabiendo que Tiffany habia tenido exito en ayudar a Rachel a aprender a contar los puntos en los dados hasta seis, Laura una vez mas le pidio que jugara con Rachel. Esta vez Tiffany empleo otra estrategia para ensenarle a Rachel lo que tenia que hacer. Dijo: "Rachel, nada mas pones el dedo en el cuadrado siguiente y despues mueves el cubo." Aunque Rachel aprendio rapidamente como seguir el camino curvo, todavia tenia problemas con reconocer los numeros en el girador. Tiffany decidio que tendria que decirle sobre cuantos cuadrados tenia que mover el cubo. Rachel estaba contenta con el que Tiffany la ayudara.

Concepto #2: La clasificacion temprana-la creacion de conjuntos

Con su representacion del cuento de Goldilocks, Rachel demostro su entendimiento de la clasificacion al ver la similitud de los ositos a pesar de su tamano. Segun Sugarman (1983), "La clasificacion existe al tratarse como equivalentes dos o mas eventos discretos" (p. 4). Esta clasificacion resulta en el reconocimiento de un grupo de objetos como parte de otro grupo mas grande. No obstante, puede que algunas personas Personas or personae are fictitious characters that are created to represent the different user types within a targeted demographic that might use a site or product.  traten unos objetos o grupos de objetos como equivalentes por motivos distintos.

Utilizando la lista de verificacion, Laura determino que Rachel tenia el conocimiento comportamental de la clasificacion por asociacion y que demostro cierto grado de conocimiento de la inclusion en una clase. Asi que para guiar el aprendizaje de Rachel de esto concepto, Laura tenia que hacer participar a Rachel en una actividad que le ayudara a entender el concepto de clase: la inclusion. La merienda presento tal oportunidad. Mientras hacia una ensalada de frutas, Laura pregunto a Rachel: "Tenemos manzanas y bananos en esta ensalada de frutas; ?podriamos agregar otra fruta?" La hora de recoger el salon tambien aporto a Laura una oportunidad para pedirle a Rachel que pusiera todos los animales en una sola so·la 1  
n.
A plural of solum.
 caja. Unos dias despues, los ninos fingian irse de picnic, y Laura alcanzo a oirle a Rachel decir a los demas ninos, "Necesitamos poner toda la comida en la canasta de picnic." Mientras otro nino ponia la comida en la canasta, Rachel recogia una variedad de juguetes y los coloco en otra caja para llevar al picnic. Durante el "picnic", Laura coloco una pelota pelota (pəlō`tə): see jai alai.
pelota

(Spanish: “little ball”) Any of several games in which players take turns, using a glove or implement, hitting a rubber ball either directly at one another or off a
 "accidentalmente" en la canasta, y le reprendio Rachel, diciendo, "Esto no se pone en la canasta de picnic."

Laura se dio cuenta que en cada nivel del desarrollo del concepto, era importante que ella hablara con Rachel y le pidiera describir y luego explicar lo que habia hecho. Vygotsky creia que los ninos llegan a ser capaces de pensar mientras hablan (Bodrova y Leong, 1996). Cuando un nino demostraba el entendimiento comportamental de un concepto y describio lo que habia representado, Laura se cuidaba de hablarle para cerciorar que tambien podia explicar sus acciones. Esta discusion aseguraba que de hecho el nino habia entendido el concepto y que no estaba simplemente repitiendo unas palabras sin ningun entendimiento verdadero. El uso del lenguaje en las actividades compartidas permite al nino construir el significado y tambien demostrar un nivel avanzado de entendimiento del concepto.

La mayoria de los ninos muy pequenos tienen la capacidad para clasificar los objetos. Sin embargo, los ninos pequenos no necesariamente saben los nombres de los colores, las formas geometricas, los materiales, etcetera. Esta falta de vocabulario puede equivocarse con una falta de conocimiento o de la capacidad de clasificar por un solo atributo. Por eso el maestro debe pedir a los ninos pequenos clasificar las cosas no segun determinado color o forma sino, mas bien, usando preguntas generales como "?Puedes hallar algo que es del mismo color (o forma o tamano o material, etc.) que este?" Para cuando los ninos demuestran que pueden clasificar segun dos o mas atributos, ya han adquirido el vocabulario para describir las caracteristicas especificas del objeto. Entonces si es apropiado que el maestro pregunte a los ninos, "?Pueden hallar algo que es rojo y largo Largo, town (1990 pop. 65,674), Pinellas co., W Fla., on the Pinellas peninsula and the Gulf Coast, across the bay from Tampa; settled 1853, inc. 1905. It is a packing, canning, and shipping center in a citrus fruit and fishing area. ?"

Para ayudar a Rachel a desarrollar la capacidad de clasificar segun asociacion o funcion, a la hora de recoger el salon Laura le decia, "?Podrias juntar en esta caja todas las cosas con que dibujas, por favor?," o "?Podrias buscar en el centro El Centro (ĕl sĕn`trō), city (1990 pop. 31,384), seat of Imperial co., SE Calif., near the Mexican border; inc. 1908. It is a processing and shipping center for a heavily irrigated agricultural region (vegetables, grain, cotton,  de juego todas las cosas que usan los medicos y ponerlas en un solo lugar, por favor?" Durante el juego dramatico, Laura pidio a los ninos que recogieran todo lo necesario para hacer una tienda Ti`en´da

n. 1. In Cuba, Mexico, etc., a booth, stall, or shop where merchandise is sold.
 de abarrotes para que Goldilocks pudiera comprar mas comida para cocinarles unas gachas de avena Avena

a genus of cereal plants of the grass family Poaceae (Graminae).


Avena pubescens
oatgrass may cause ergotism (see rye ergot1) when infested with Claviceps purpurea.
 a los osos. Aunque no es tipico que los ninos preescolares tengan un entendimiento claro de la inclusion en y la exclusion de una clase, cuando se les hacen preguntas especificas, algunos podrian demostrar un entendimiento parcial del concepto. Es particularmente probable que entiendan si la inclusion en una clase se relaciona con experiencias personales como visitar la oficina del medico med·i·co
n.
1. A physician.

2. A medical student.
, ir al supermercado, o trabajar en el jardin El Jardin is a house located at 3747 Main Highway in Miami, Florida. It is listed on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places.

Built in 1918 along a ridge of oolitic limestone, El Jardin expresses the broad training of its architect, Richard Kiehnel, and the experience
 con uno de los padres
This article is about the Roman Catholic priests' organization. For the article on military chaplains, see Padre.

Not to be confused with San Diego Padres.
 (vease Apendice II).

Un modo mas complejo de la clasificacion es el hacer graficas. Las graficas sencillas de barras, hechas en forma grupal, son apropiadas para el nivel preescolar y permiten a los ninos trabajar juntos y aprender los unos de los otros. Las graficas de barras que presentan informacion distintamente ofrecen a los ninos algo de practica en crear y comparar los conjuntos:
   Una buena grafica surge del deseo natural de los ninos de
   compartir la informacion con sus companeros, medir los resultados,
   y comparar los mismos. Las graficas pueden serles especialmente
   motivadoras a los ninos avanzados en sentido cognoscitivo porque
   provocan un nivel avanzado de pensamiento. (Moomaw y Hieronymus,
   1995, p. 170).


Mientras se acercaba el Halloween, Laura hizo participar a los ninos en hacer una grafica basada en las predicciones. Presento las calabazas con una grafica titulada "?Como crecen las calabazas?" (Figura 2). Calabazas que crecian de varias maneras ilustraban las opciones: en un arbol de calabazas, en un arbusto de calabazas, en una vid, o bajo tierra. Los nombres de los ninos estaban escritos en rectangulos de carton y estaban disponibles para que los escogieran. Laura llamo a los ninos individualmente y les presento cada opcion una vez mas y les pidio poner su nombre junto a la manera en que pensaban que las calabazas crecian.

[FIGURE 2 OMITTED]

Esta actividad demostro de nuevo que los ninos pequenos piensan de manera distinta o no tienen el conocimiento supuesto por los adultos. La mayoria de los ninos decidieron correctamente que las calabazas crecian en la vid. Sid, no obstante, declaro, "Las calabazas crecen bajo tierra como las papas." Jamie tambien escogio la opcion subterranea pero no pudo explicar su eleccion. Al preguntarsele por que, contesto, "Porque si." Despues de acabar la discusion los ninos y la maestra, Laura mostro a la clase unas fotos de una siembra de calabazas y unas calabazas en una vid. Pregunto si alguien podia ver como crecian las calabazas. Todos se acordaron en que de hecho las calabazas si crecen en una vid.

Concepto #3: El orden y la seriacion

En el episodio de juego anteriormente descrito, Rachel demostro tambien su entendimiento comportamental de la seriacion al colocar los osos sistematicamente en orden del mas grande al mas pequeno. El ordenamiento es un grado mas avanzado de la comparacion (el ver las diferencias) e incluye la comparacion de mas de dos objetos o mas de dos grupos. El ordenamiento o la seriacion incluye la colocacion de mas de dos objetos, o de conjuntos con mas de dos miembros, en una secuencia. El ordenamiento tambien requiere la colocacion de objetos en una secuencia del primero al ultimo ul·ti·mo  
adv. Abbr. ult.
In or of the month before the present one.



[Latin ultim (m
, y es un requisito previo de poner las cosas en un patron. El ordenamiento forma la base de nuestro sistema numerico (p. ej. 2 es mas grande que 1, 3 es mas grande que 2, etc.).

Laura vio en la lista de verificacion que la siguiente etapa en la secuencia de desarrollo de ese concepto es la seriacion doble. Durante el episodio de juego, Rachel no entendia este concepto, como demostro al colocar las cucharas al azar y no segun el tamano de los osos. De hecho, cuando la nina La Niña  
n.
A cooling of the ocean surface off the western coast of South America, occurring periodically every 4 to 12 years and affecting Pacific and other weather patterns.
 mayor, Tiffany, le recordo que el osito mas grande necesitaba la cuchara mas grande, Rachel no le hizo caso, y cuando Tiffany siguio, Rachel se fue. Los cuentos como "Goldilocks y los tres osos" frecuentemente se usan para ilustrar el concepto de la doble seriacion. No obstante, puesto que Rachel no entendia el concepto despues de la primera lectura, Laura decidio proporcionar tazas y cucharas, animales, y tazones de variados tamanos que podian utilizarse en la seriacion doble. Mas adelante en el ano escolar, Laura observo a Rachel explicar a Emily el concepto de la seriacion doble de la misma manera en que Tiffany habia intentado explicar el mismo concepto a Rachel. Laura escucho a Emily exclamar por fin, "Ya entiendo-!el tazon grande va con el perro grande!" Los companeros competentes pueden poner el ejemplo del uso de conceptos y guiar el aprendizaje del nino menos competente durante las actividades compartidas. Las actividades compartidas exigen a los participantes a aclarar y elaborar sus procesos de raciocinio (Bodrova y Leong, 1996).

Laura tambien hizo participar a todos los ninos en experiencias de aprendizaje que podian ayudarles a ganar el conocimiento tanto comportamental como representacional del concepto del orden y de la seriacion. Estas experiencias abarcaban el pedir a los ninos que hicieran cola segun su estatura antes de salir a jugar, poner los personajes en sus pinturas en orden de acuerdo con su tamano, ordenar los sonidos en una serie desde el mas fuerte al mas suave, e ilustrar los objetos segun el matiz del mas claro al mas oscuro o viceversa. El ordenamiento en secuencia de los eventos durante una excursion excursion /ex·cur·sion/ (eks-kur´zhun) a range of movement regularly repeated in performance of a function, e.g., excursion of the jaws in mastication.  de clase fue otra experiencia educativa relacionada con entender la seriacion que Laura aporto a sus estudiantes. Ademas, Laura usaba a conciencia el lenguaje matematico cuando los ninos jugaban con los bloques, las tazas encajadas, y asi por estilo. Algunas preguntas especificas que hizo son: "?Puedes hallar un bloque mas chico que este?" y "?Puedes hallar algo mas grande que esta taza?" Mientras los ninos jugaban con vehiculos de juguete, ella les pidio que colocaran los carros en orden del mas grande al mas pequeno o del mas pequeno al mas grande. Laura tambien llevo al salon su propia coleccion de 17 pinas-desde conos de la secoya gigante de California hasta unas pinas diminutitas de pinos siempre verdes jovenes. Los ninos se emocionaron al enterarse de donde ella las habia recogido y de como tienen pinas de diferentes tamanos los diferentes tipos de pinos. Les gusto GUSTO Cardiology A series of clinical trials that have examined a series of strategies to reduce the M&M of acute MI; the GUSTOs include: Global Utilization of Streptokinase & tPA for Occluded coronary arteries trial–GUSTO I; Global Use of Strategies  ordenarlos del mas pequeno al mas grande y viceversa. Aunque la mayoria de los ninos empleaban un metodo de tanteos para ordenarlos, casi todos podian seriar por lo menos 9 de las pinas del mas grande al mas pequeno. Un nino hasta pudo seriar todas las 17. La seriacion al reves era mas dificil y exigia que la maestra les diera muchas indicaciones verbales. La inclusion de vocabulario como primero, segundo, tercero, etc. ayudo a los ninos a desarrollar el conocimiento representacional de la seriacion (vease el Apendice III).

El uso de las listas de verificacion

Al vigilar y evaluar continuamente el entendimiento de los ninos, los maestros pueden basarse en el conocimiento de ellos en contextos significativos para los ninos. Las listas de verificacion ofrecian un medio para mantener un registro Registro is a city on the Atlantic coast of São Paulo, Brazil. Registro in portuguese means register, and this name was given to the city because it was the port from which the earlier settlers registered the gold that was leaving on ships from Brazil headed to Portugal.  del entendimiento de los ninos de ciertos conceptos matematicos en la clase preescolar de Laura. Ella uso estas listas, no para evaluar o determinar la destreza, sino para juntar informacion que podia utilizarse en el desarrollo del curriculo. Se valio de estas listas para identificar las etapas especificas de desarrollo de los conceptos de cada nino y luego para planear los materiales y experiencias educativas apropiados para andamiar el aprendizaje de los ninos en la zona de desarrollo proximo de ese concepto. Laura se aseguro de indicar que ademas de demostrar el entendimiento comportamental, los ninos tambien podian describir y explicar sus acciones. Las explicaciones de los ninos de sus acciones ayudaban a Laura a determinar que tenian un entendimiento verdadero del concepto y que no simplemente repetian palabras sin entenderlas de verdad. La evaluacion continua le permitia vigilar el progreso individual de los ninos y enfocarse asi en guiar el aprendizaje de los ninos de estos conceptos. Las listas de verificacion ayudaban a Laura a tomar decisiones acerca de proporcionarles actividades apropiadas para el desarrollo a los ninos con quienes trabajaba. Escribio en su diario:
   La lista de verificacion me ayudo a arreglar mis lecciones de
   manera logica de sencillas a mas complejas. Aprendi a observar y
   escuchar atentamente a los ninos no solo en la mesa de matematica
   sino tambien durante el recreo y la hora de juego libre. Pude
   ajustarme a las necesidades individuales de los ninos en varias
   actividades pre-matematicas. Alineaba el curriculo y la evaluacion
   para captar mas plenamente las etapas del desarrollo de los
   conceptos matematicos del aparejar y la correspondencia uno-a-uno,
   la clasificacion, y la seriacion.


El uso sistematico pero flexible de las listas de verificacion en cualquier salon de clase puede facilitarles a los maestros la toma La Toma is Spanish for "taking possession". On April 30, 1598 in present day San Elizario, Texas, Don Juan de Oñate made a legal declaration (La Toma) that Spain was "taking possession" of all territory north of the Rio Grande River for King Philip II of Spain ("Rey Felipe  de decisiones sobre como organizar el salon de clase, cuales preguntas hacer, y cuales recursos que poner a la disposicion de cada nino para su desarrollo (Helm, Beneke, y Steinheimer, 1997). Igual que Laura, otros maestros pueden utilizar estas listas mientras observan a grupos pequenos de ninos trabajando juntos, o uno por uno a ninos especificos participando en alguna actividad. Las listas tambien pueden usarse en entrevistas individuales para evaluar a ninos que no demuestran el entendimiento ni al trabajar independientemente ni en grupos. Ademas, las listas se pueden utilizar en las evaluaciones del rendimiento para determinar como los ninos llevan a cabo tareas especificas que imitan las experiencias de la vida real (Billman y Sherman, 1996).

Los maestros pueden usar las listas de verificacion con la frecuencia que consideren necesaria para registrar See domain name registrar.  el desarrollo y el entendimiento de los conceptos por parte de los ninos. Para determinar el nivel de entendimiento al principio del ano escolar, la lista puede utilizarse en las primeras semanas del programa. Seria util hacer esta evaluacion con respecto a cada nino durante las actividades del tiempo libre. El papel del maestro entonces podria ser el de proporcionar una variedad de materiales que permiten a los ninos demostrar espontanea y naturalmente su conocimiento comportamental de los conceptos matematicos. Esta informacion inicial luego podria utilizarse para decidir cuales actividades podrian ayudarles tanto a ninos especificos como a grupos pequenos de ninos que necesitan experiencias similares. Despues de ofrecer oportunidades para que los ninos demuestren su conocimiento comportamental mediante la participacion activa con los materiales, los maestros necesitan interactuar con los ninos. Cuando los maestros utilizan el lenguaje de la matematica en tales interacciones, se les ayuda a los ninos a avanzar de un nivel de conocimiento comportamental al siguiente, o del entendimiento comportamental al representacional del concepto. Laura observo que el aumento en general de la conciencia de la matematica por parte de los ninos condujo a muchas mas instancias del uso espontaneo de las habilidades matematicas en la clase. Anoto en su diario:
   Se clasificaban y se seriaban los animales de plastico. Se usaban
   los bloques de colores para hacer patrones geometricos
   intrincados. Se usaban los bloques para construir de modos cada
   vez mas complejos. Al principio del ano escolar, la construccion
   con bloques era linear y de un solo nivel. Mientras progresaba el
   proyecto y los ninos llegaban a ser mas habiles, la construccion
   con bloques se hacia en niveles multiples y mas abstracta. Se
   contaban los numeros del calendario muchas veces durante el dia,
   los ninos mas habiles ayudando a sus amigos menos habiles a
   identificar los nombres de los simbolos numericos. Este aumento de
   la conciencia matematica se extendio a los hogares de algunos
   ninos. Varios padres me contaban que sus hijos habian llegado a
   tener mucho interes en la matematica fuera de la escuela. La madre
   de Megan, por ejemplo, me conto que ella hacia patrones de "todo":
   los zapatos de la familia, las latas en el aparador, el cereal,
   los dulces, y hasta los juguetes de su hermanito.


Es necesario el uso periodico y sistematico de las listas de verificacion para vigilar el desarrollo de conceptos de cada nino. La fechacion de las observaciones al usar las listas proporciona un registro del crecimiento y el desarrollo de cada nino y ayuda a identificar a los ninos que estan en etapas cercanas de entendimiento en cualquier momento dado. Este proceso moldea las decisiones del maestro sobre la necesidad de guiar el proceso de aprendizaje de cada nino. "Las evaluaciones de calidad moldean las decisiones de instruccion y permiten a los maestros vigilar el progreso de cada nino a la vez de enfocarse en como piensan los ninos respecto a la matematica" (NCTM, 2000, p. 6). Cuando el maestro sabe cuales conceptos quiere que los ninos entiendan y las etapas por las cuales se desarrollan, puede planear experiencias de aprendizaje significativas y evaluar el progreso de los ninos (Richardson y Salkeld, 1995). Al hacer planes para el desarrollo de los ninos, los maestros tambien tienen que tomar en cuenta los intereses de los ninos y las etapas de su desarrollo. Es de suma importancia dejar que los ninos tengan tiempo libre para jugar que les permita explorar los conceptos matematicos. Mientras los ninos estan participando en una actividad, el maestro puede observar y luego tomar un papel activo en guiar su aprendizaje. Esta interaccion fomentara el progreso de los ninos del entendimiento comportamental al representacional de conceptos matematicos. De ahi que el uso flexible pero sistematico de las listas de verificacion anadidas abajo puedan facilitarles a los maestros preescolares el desarrollo del conocimiento matematico de los ninos. Tambien les ofrecen a los maestros una manera de examinar sistematicamente sus propias tecnicas y tomar decisiones informadas acerca de cumplir con las necesidades individuales de los ninos en cuanto al aprendizaje de la matematica. La siguiente anotacion en el diario de Laura comunica claramente su sentido de crecimiento profesional:
   Durante este proyecto, desarrolle unas habilidades como
   investigadora. Estudie sistematicamente mis propias tecnicas e
   hice muchos ajustes para acomodar mis habilidades matematicas
   nuevas. Me hice adepta en planear las lecciones y producir las
   actividades matematicas apropiadas para el desarrollo de ninos.
   Conforme ganaba mas conocimiento y algo de confianza, empece a
   desarrollar mi voz profesional. Tanto la mayoria de mis
   estudiantes como sus padres y los administradores de mi escuela
   acogieron el proyecto entero con mucho entusiasmo. La emocion de
   los ninos por la matematica fue continua.

Apendice I

Lista de verificacion para los conceptos pre-matematicos
preescolares

El aparejar y la correspondencia uno-a-uno

Nombre del estudiante --

Conceptos/ Etapas de Desarrollo   sept.-oct.   dic.-ene.   abr.-may.

Aparejar objetos disimiles
pero relacionados

1. Apareja distintos objetos
disimiles pero relacionados

2. Apareja grupos pares-con 5
o menos objetos

3. Apareja grupos impares-con
5 o mas objetos

4. Utiliza el vocabulario
apropiado al aparejar (p. ej.
demasiados, no suficientes)

Aparejar objetos similares

5. Apareja 2 objetos similares

6. Apareja grupos pares-con 5
o menos objetos

7. Apareja grupos impares-con
5 o mas objetos

8. Utiliza el vocabulario
apropiado al aparejar los
objetos similares (p. ej.
demasiados, no suficientes)

GUIA PARA LAS LISTAS DE VERIFICACION

[]     Demuestra el conocimiento comportamental del concepto
[][]   Demuestra el conocimiento comportamental y representacional
       del concepto
0      Demuestra el conocimiento comportamental parcial del
       concepto
00     Demuestra el conocimiento representacional parcial del
       concepto
X      No demuestra ningun conocimiento del concepto

Apendice II

Lista de verificacion para los conceptos pre-matematicos
preescolares

Conjuntos de clasificacion

Nombre del estudiante --

Conceptos/ Etapas de Desarrollo   sept.-oct.   dic.-ene.   abr.-may.

1. Puede agrupar objetos
identicos

2. Clasifica los objetos
segun 1 atributo-color, forma,
tamano, material, patron,
textura

3. Clasifica segun 2 atributos

4. Clasifica segun 3 atributos

5. Describe lo que se ha hecho
al clasificar segun 1, 2, o 3
atributos

6. Explica lo que se ha hecho
al clasificar segun 1, 2, o 3
atributos

7. Clasifica segun la funcion

8. Describe y/o explica lo que
se ha hecho

9. Clasifica segun la
asociacion

10. Describe y/o explica lo
que se ha hecho

11. Entiende la exclusion
de una clase

12. Entiende la inclusion
en una clase

13. Describe y/o explica
lo que se ha hecho

14. Clasifica segun el numero

GUIA PARA LAS LISTAS DE VERIFICACION

[]     Demuestra el conocimiento comportamental del concepto
[][]   Demuestra el conocimiento comportamental y representacional
       del concepto
0      Demuestra el conocimiento comportamental parcial del
       concepto
00     Demuestra el conocimiento representacional parcial del
       concepto
X      No demuestra ningun conocimiento del concepto

Apendice III

Lista de verificacion para los conceptos pre-matematicos
preescolares

El ordenamiento y la seriacion

Nombre del estudiante --

Conceptos/ Etapas de Desarrollo   sept.-oct.   dic.-ene.   abr.-may.

1. Compara los atributos
opuestos (p. ej. largo/corto,
grande/pequeno, etc.)

2. Ordena 3 objetos al azar

3. Ordena 3 objetos por
metodo de tanteos

4. Ordena 3 objetos de
manera sistematica

5. Seria en orden invertido

6. Hace la seriacion doble

7. Describe lo que se ha hecho

8. Explica lo que se ha hecho

GUIA PARA LAS LISTAS DE VERIFICACION

[]     Demuestra el conocimiento comportamental del concepto
[][]   Demuestra el conocimiento comportamental y representacional
       del concepto
0      Demuestra el conocimiento comportamental parcial del
       concepto
00     Demuestra el conocimiento representacional parcial del
       concepto
X      No demuestra ningun conocimiento del concepto


Reconocimiento

Todas las citas del diario de la maestra se incluyen por el permiso suyo.

Referencias

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Payne, Joseph N. (1990). Mathematics for the young child. Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. ED 326 393.

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Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes (Michael Cole, Vera John-Steiner, Sylvia Scribner, & Ellen Souberman, Eds. & Trans.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1986). Thought and language (Alex Kozulin, Trans.). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Anna Kirova es profesora asistente en el Departamento de la Educacion de Primaria en la Universidad de Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. Le interesa la investigacion en el area del desarrollo profesional de los maestros mediante la participacion en la practica pensativa, el aprendizaje temprano de los conceptos matematicos, el uso infantil de la tecnologia de las computadoras en los ambientes escolares libres de parcialidad sexual, y las experiencias de ninos cultural y linguisticamente diversos de soledad y aislamiento en la escuela.

Anna Kirova

Profesora Asistente

Departamento de la Educacion de Primaria

Facultad de la Educacion

Universidad de Alberta

Edmonton, AB T6G 2G5

Canada

Telefono: 780-492-4273, extension 263

Fax: 780-492-7622

Correo electronico: anna.kirova@ualberta.ca

Ambika Bhargava es Profesora Asistente en el Departamento de Desarrollo Humano y Estudios de la Ninez en la Universidad Oakland, Rochester, Michigan. Le interesa la investigacion sobre el papel del adulto en crear las condiciones que fomentan el aprendizaje. Especificamente, tres subdivisiones de este tema se relacionan con el desarrollo de los conceptos matematicos de los ninos preescolares, el uso infantil de las computadoras, y la creacion de ambientes escolares libres de parcialidad sexual.

Ambika Bhargava

Profesora Asistente

Departamento de Desarrollo Humano y Estudios de la Ninez

Colegio de la Educacion y los Servicios Humanos

Universidad Oakland

Rochester, MI 48309

Correo electronico: abhargava@oakland.edu

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Author:Bhargava, Ambika
Publication:Early Childhood Research & Practice
Geographic Code:1USA
Date:Mar 22, 2002
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