Learning disabilities in children's and adolescent literature: how are characters portrayed?

Abstract. Ninety fictional books written for children or adolescents that portrayed at least one character with a learning disability were analyzed to determine how learning disabilities and related topics were addressed. Results indicated that most of the characters with learning disabilities were dynamic, meaning they changed or grew through the course of the story line. Also, most were the main character, the story was told from their point of view, and their learning disability had a major impact on the plot. Most commonly the learning disability was in the areas of reading and written language, with the character receiving services in a resource room. The diagnostic/evaluation process was often described, but few details about instructional methods were part of the story. Both negative and positive portrayals of teachers were evident.

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Authors of literature for children and adolescents often include characters with disabilities in their works. Historically, authors have used characters with disabilities for literary symbolism or as pivotal in the moral development of other characters (Dyches & Prater, 2000). Today, authors include characters with disabilities to (a) focus on the life of an individual with a disability, or (b) tell a story that happens to include an individual with a disability. In the first case, fictionalized or true characters may serve as role models and/or as bibliotherapy for children with disabilities. In addition, such characterizations may give children without disabilities opportunities to vicariously experience and learn about disabilities. In the latter case, the author's intent is not necessarily to provide role models or to teach about disabilities, but to represent the diversity in society.

Although teachers and researchers have advocated for the use of fictional literature as a means to teach students about disabilities (e.g., Andrews, 1998b; Blaska, 1996) and/or to be used as bibliotherapy (e.g., McCarty & Chalmers, 1997; Sridhar & Vaughn, 2000), few authors have systematically studied these portrayals. A comprehensive review of the literature revealed only four studies in which contemporary characterization was examined empirically. In these studies researchers analyzed characterization of (a) disabilities in general (Ayala, 1999; Harrill, Leung, McKeag, & Price,. 1993); (b) mental retardation (Prater, 1999); and (c) mental retardation and autism (Dyches, Prater, & Cramer, 2001).

In the first study, Ayala (1999) reviewed 59 fiction and nonfiction books for young children, published between 1974 and 1996. Orthopedic impairments were the most commonly portrayed disabilities. Caucasian characters were portrayed more than characters of other ethnicities. A variety of settings were represented such as home, school, and leisure activities. Various school settings were also represented, including the general education classroom. Few of the books characterized the individual with a disability as a victim or outcast, and, according to the author's criteria, only 20% of the books portrayed the individual with a disability in realistic terms.

Harrill et al. (1993), in the second study, randomly selected children's literature published prior to and following implementation of P.L. 94-142 (defined as 1978). Each book was rated by teachers on 10 statements, referring primarily to the portrayal of the character, such as the degree of stereotyping, amount of time the character spent in the least restrictive environment, or the purposefulness of the character's role in the story. Additional items included realistic and sensitive illustrations and nondiscriminatory language. The authors concluded that notable improvements were seen in the books published post-special education legislation.

In the third study, Prater (1999) examined 68 books written for children and young adults in which characters with mental retardation are portrayed. The books were published between 1965 and 1996. Each character was categorized as (a) a main, supporting, or minor character; and (b) a static character, who is believable but unchanging in character development; or (c) a dynamic character, who changes throughout the course of the story. The point of view from which the book is written was also examined. Most of the characters with mental retardation are supporting and static, and most books are not written from the point of view of the character with mental retardation. In terms of topics in the field, schooling and education are rarely depicted, and when they are, it is generally outside of the context of schools. If instruction takes place, the "teacher" is a peer, a sibling, or another family member. The few times schoolteachers are portrayed, they are generally depicted favorably.

In the last study, Dyches et al. (2001) examined all children's fiction books published in 1997 and 1998 that include portrayals of characters with mental retardation or autism (N=12). Inconsistencies were found across books in terms of positive portrayals, relationships, and changes in both the characters with and without mental retardation or autism. This study found that characters are portrayed as having more independence and being educated in more inclusive settings than the characters found in the Prater (1999) study although few of the books are written from the point of view of the character with disabilities.

Educators and researchers advocate using literature to teach others about disabilities and as bibliotherapy for those with disabilities. Yet few researchers have examined portrayals to ensure that they are accurate and appropriate. The purpose of this study was to conduct an examination of books portraying characters with learning disabilities (LD) in a fashion similar to the study of characterization of mental retardation and autism conducted by Prater (1999) and Dyches et al. (2001). The research questions were:

1. What percentage of fiction books written for children and adolescents:

a. Portray individuals with LD as minor vs. supportive characters and dynamic vs. supportive characters;

b. Are written from the perspective of the character with LD;

c. Use the learning disability as a major, somewhat, or minor role in the plot; and

d. Portray reading, written expression, math, social skills, oral language, and motor skills as the type of learning disability?

2. How is the role of identification/diagnosis of LD portrayed in the plot?

3. How is the role of schooling portrayed, particularly the:

a. School placement;

b. Instructional methodology; and

c. Teachers?

4. What other issues or topics related to LD emerge as themes in the plot?

METHOD

An attempt was made to locate all fiction written for children and adolescents portraying a character with learning disabilities, published before 2001. First, 9 reference books (Azarnoff, 1983; Baskin & Harris, 1977, 1984; Blaska, 1996; Carlin, Laughlin, & Saniga, 1991; Quicke, 1985; Robertson, 1992; Rudman, 1995; Sweeney, 1998); 19 professional articles (Andrews, 1998a, 1998b; Bauer, 1985; Gold, 1983; Higgins, Lewis, & Perryman, 1981; Hildreth & Candler, 1992; Hopkins, 1980; Hulen, Hoffbauer, & Prenn, 1998; Landrum, 1998; Lass & Bromfield, 1981; McGowan, McGowan, & Lombard, 1995; Myles, Ormsbee, Downing, Walker, & Hudson, 1992; Prater, 2000; Sridhak & Vaughn, 2000; Stark, 1986; Stelle, 1999; Stroud, 1981; Wagoner, 1984; Winsor, 1998); one professional newsletter article (Summer Reading for Students with Disabilities, 1997); and one professional brochure published by a national organization (National Information Center for Children and Youth with Disabilities, n.d.) were searched. An Internet search was also conducted, which found four world wide web pages that listed children's books with characters with learning disabilities (see Table 2). In addition, three Internet bookstores (www.amazon.com, www.barnesandnoble.com, and www.specialneeds.com) and the electronic version of Books in Print were searched.

Once a comprehensive list of potential books was generated, three criteria were applied to the books for inclusion in the study. The book must (a) include a main or supporting character with a learning disability (LD) as the character's primary disability, (b) be fiction (not nonfiction, autobiography, or biography), and (c) have been published prior to 2001. Several book lists, particularly the electronic lists, did not differentiate between LD find attention deficit (hyperactivity) disorders (ADD/ADHD). If the book summary identified ADD/ ADHD as the primary disability, the book was excluded from the study. This resulted in a total of 105 books.

One book could not be located through public libraries, bookstores, or interlibrary loan at a large western university, and 14 additional books were excluded after being read. Books were excluded if the character (a) clearly was not an individual with LD, but with another disability, such as ADD/ADHD (n=2), mental retardation (n=1), emotional/behavioral disorder (n=3), or traumatic brain injury (n=2); or (b) was described as illiterate (n=2) or as having minor academic difficulties (n=4) without indication of any disability. Of the original 105, 90 books met the criteria for inclusion in the study (see Table 3).

The researcher read all 90 books and analyzed the characterizations of the individuals with LD in terms of (a) the role or level of the character (main or supporting), (b) the type of character development (dynamic or static), and (c) the point of view from which the story was told. A portrayal was classified as a main character if the majority of the story line centered on him or her. All other portrayals were considered supporting roles. Dynamic characters were defined as those who changed or developed in the course of the story. Static characters remained the same, that is, they did not grow or learn anything new by the end of the book.

The impact of the disability on the plot (major, somewhat, minor) was also determined. Major impact was defined as books in which the plot focused exclusively on the character's learning disability. Books where a subplot focused on a character's LD were considered to have somewhat of an impact; and minor impact included books in which a character's LD was not part of any plot. In the latter case, the learning disability was used more to describe an individual than to impact the story line.

While reading each book, the researcher took notes and identified themes. In particular, she looked for themes about the portrayal of learning disabilities. Of special interest were the types and characteristics of learning disabilities portrayed, as well as the role of identification/diagnosis of learning disabilities in the plot. Of additional interest was whether, and if so how, other issues or topics related to learning disabilities were included in the story. In particular, the researcher examined the role of schooling in the story line, paying attention to the treatment of school placement, instructional methodology, and teachers.

The notes consisted of a chart on which the researcher wrote the book title, themes to be examined, and corresponding page numbers. After several books were read, similar themes began to emerge. The researcher then returned to the books with similar themes, reread the pages on which the themes had been identified originally, and provided additional written elaboration or clarification, if needed.

RESULTS

Characterization

The characters identified as having LD were categorized as main or supporting and dynamic or static. Ninety books were included in the study; however, several books featured more than one character with LD; thus 97 characters with LD were identified. Most of the characters with LD were categorized as main (n=73; 75.3%) and dynamic (n=89; 91.8%). Thus, three-fourths of the characters with LD were the focal point of the story line, and nearly all of them changed or grew throughout the course of the story (see Table 3).

More than half (n=53; 58.9%) of the books were written solely from the point of view of the character with LD, while one fourth (n=22; 24.4%) were written from the point of view of someone without LD (see Table 3). Non-LD characters included peers without a disability (e.g., Putting Up with Sherwood), peers with a disability other than LD (e.g., Eddie's Blue-Winged Dragon), siblings (e.g., M.E. and Morton), or another relative (e.g., cousin in Handles). Thirteen authors used the points of view of both an individual with and an individual without LD (14.4%) (e.g., Just Ferret, The Runaways); and two authors used a narrative format without a particular character's point of view (2.2%) (Leo, the Late Bloomer; It's George).

Each book was categorized according to the level of impact the learning disability had on the story line (i.e., major, somewhat, minor). In approximately one half of the books (n=47; 52.2%), learning disabilities played a major role in the story line (see Table 3). In most of these books, the story was structured around a child having difficulty in school. For example, in Different, Not Dumb, Mike struggles with reading until he goes to a new classroom and learns to read. In The Best Fight, Jamie fights with his peers when they tease him for not being able to read. When Jamie is finally put on detention, he and the principal have a good discussion about his disability. And in Adam Zigzag, Adam's parents struggle to find a school to help him academically. In the meantime Adam turns to drugs to cover up his problems (see Table 3).

In approximately one third (n=31; 34.4%) of the books, the learning disability had "somewhat" of an impact on the story line, generally as a factor in a subplot. For example, in How Many Days Until Tomorrow? Josh and his older brother, Simon, spend an adventurous summer on an island off the coast of Maine with their grandparents. Josh feels he is always being compared to Simon, particularly by his grandfather who is constantly correcting Josh. Josh wishes Simon was the one with dyslexia. Another book in this category, The Elderberry Thicket, takes place in rural Wisconsin in 1938. When Franny's father loses his job and leaves home to find employment, Franny volunteers to tutor Gill, one of her classmates, to help him learn to read. Her mother helps with the tutoring, and their success with Gill opens up other opportunities.

In the remaining books examined in the study, the character's learning disability played a minor role (n=12; 13.3%). For example, in Dicey's Song and its sequel, Seventeen Against the Dealer, Dicey's younger sister, Maybeth, has a learning disability. Maybeth is portrayed as having difficulty at school, but this characterization has little to do with the plot or subplots of the books. Another example of a learning disability with a minor role is found in Sixth Grade Sleepover; Janie feels better about her secret, fear of the dark, when she learns at the end of the story that the new girl in her class also has a secret, which happens to be a reading disability.

Characteristics and Types of Learning Disabilities

Nearly three-fourths (n=70; 72.2%) of the 97 characters exhibited a reading disability. Written language disabilities were the next most frequently portrayed (n=36; 37.5%), followed by math (n=7; 7.2%), social skills (n=7; 7.2%), oral language (n=5; 5.2%), and motor skills (n=5; 5.2%). Sample books from each category are listed in Table 4.

Specific learning disabilities. Many of the characters with reading disabilities were identified in the books as having dyslexia (e.g., Kiss the Clown, Me and Einstein, My Name is [begin strikethrough]Brain[end strikethrough] Brian, Yellow Bird and Me). In most of these books dyslexia is defined, usually for the child being identified or his/her classmates. For example, in Danny Means Trouble one of his teachers, Mr. Bowman, explains to the other students that the reason Danny is leaving class is to get help from a reading tutor.

   Danny has a reading disability that is called
   dyslexia. Perhaps you've heard of it before. What it
   means is, he can't see some words right, because his
   brain reverses the letters. For example, the word saw
   might look like was to him. (Suzanne, 1990, p. 124)

Another example of a character with dyslexia is Jason in Altogether, One at a Time. An unnamed boy tries to use Jason's dyslexia as the reason for not inviting Jason to his birthday party, but the boy's mother reminds him that dyslexia is not contagious:

   I forgot that Mother would know what dyslexia
   was ... If you have dyslexia it's like your brain is a
   faulty TV set; the picture comes through the wires
   all right, but some of the tubes are missing or are in
   the wrong places. So that when you tune in to one
   channel you may get the sound from another. Or
   spots of the picture may be missing or be backwards
   or upside down. Kids with dyslexia read
   funny. (Konigsburg, 1971, p. 4)

Other characters with reading problems are described not as dyslexic, but as having reading or learning disabilities. These disabilities are also defined. For example, Ms. Chadick, in Megan's Nutcracker Prince, explains to Megan that she has a learning disability. Megan responds, "What's that? ... I thought a disability meant, like, being blind. Or having to use a wheelchair" (Costello, 1994, p. 56). Ms. Chadick answers:

   Those are kinds of disabilities, too ... Think of it
   this way. People use wheelchairs because it's hard
   for them to walk. Your disability makes it hard for
   you to read and to see numbers properly. That
   makes it difficult for you to learn the same way
   other children do. (pp. 56-57)

Over one third of the characters in the books studied had written language disabilities. In Secrets Aren't Always for Keeps, Jennifer has a pen pal, Kay, but because of her writing difficulties, she asks her best friend to handwrite the letters to Kay. "They were really my own thoughts, straight from my heart, so it wasn't like a lie or anything" (Aiello & Shulman, 1988, p. 11). Difficulty arises when Kay comes to visit Jennifer and must figure out how to tell Kay she didn't really "write" the letters.

Deficits in math skills were less prominent. In fact, none of the books portrayed a character who demonstrated math difficulties only. Those who had math problems also demonstrated difficulties in reading and/or written expression. For example, in Thank You, Mr. Falker, Trisha has difficulty reading, writing, and computing. "`Line the numbers up before you add them,' the teacher would say. But when Trisha tried, the numbers looked like a stack of blocks, wobbly and ready to fall. She just knew she was dumb" (Polacco, 1998, no page number [np]).

A few portrayals included social skill deficiencies. For example, Judy, in But I'm Ready to Go, demonstrates pragmatic language difficulties that interfere with her social skills. After listening to another student's report on Patrick Henry, including his "give me liberty or give me death" speech, Judy raises her hand and asks, "`That was a pretty good speech of Patrick Henry's. But why did they make him a saint just for that?'" The teacher asks what she means. In all seriousness, Judy responds, "`Well, you know--Saint Patrick's Day ...' Suddenly the whole class was laughing" (Albert, 1976, pp. 4-5).

Other books portrayed oral receptive or expressive language difficulties as the primary learning problem. Tommy in The Summer Kid and Reverend Lee in The Vicar of Nibbleswicke reverse letters and syllables in their speech. Tommy's speech reversals make him appear different, and the Reverend's speech reversals are comical.

Some of the characters demonstrated motor skill deficits. In Wrongway Applebaum, Sam Applebaum dreams of being on a baseball team. But he can't catch, throw or hit a ball. He does, however, get his wish when his grandmother volunteers to be coach of a local baseball league team. In the first game he actually hits the ball, and runs from third to second to first base and home, only to be told to run back the way he came. He runs in the opposite direction and makes it all the way back to home before the hit ball is returned. General clumsiness is portrayed in several books including Happy Birthday Jason, The Runaways, and Putting Up with Sherwood, among others.

In some books the character's type of learning disability was unclear. For example, Nick, in Probably Still Nick Swansen, knows he has a learning problem. That's why he has been assigned to Room 19. When he discusses his condition with a classmate, the friend suggests that Nick has minimal brain dysfunction because "`it's what puts people in Room 19. Some people, I mean. You've probably got it too. I mean, you haven't got Downs, you're not retarded or anything--you probably have it'" (Wolff, 1988, p. 147). And Crystal, in Life Magic, tells the reader that it is almost impossible to label her learning disability. "The test results showed there wasn't really any simple name for what I had" (Cooper, 1990, p. 26).

Specific terms other than dyslexia and learning disability were used rarely. Exceptions included minimal brain disorder/dysfunction (But I'm Ready to Go, Probably Still Nick Swansen), neurological impairment/disorder (And Don't Bring Jeremy, Father Bede's Misfit, Whales to See The), sensory/motor integration difficulties (Angie), word blindness (Squarehead and Me), apraxia (Whales to See The), hyperkinesias (Whales to See The), and dysgraphia (Unjust Cause).

Learning strengths. Along with a type of disability, characters often manifested strengths. The most commonly portrayed strength was math skills. For example, Colin David, the main character in Home is Where Your Feet are Standing, has reading, handwriting, and spelling difficulties but the author explains:

   He didn't need any help with math, that was his
   best subject, he knew it all backwards and forwards
   and hardly had to think much to put down the correct
   answers. But just so they didn't get suspicious ...
   he would put down a couple of wrong answers now
   and then, otherwise they wouldn't believe him,
   they always thought you must be cheating.
   (Windsor, 1975, p. 7)

Other examples of characters who have reading difficulties, but do well at math include Peter in The Hard Life of Seymour E. Newton, Danny in Danny Means Trouble, and Sam in Do Bananas Chew Gum?.

Additional areas of strengths portrayed included motor, social, and artistic skills. In Sixth Grade Can Really Kill You, Helen, who has academic difficulties and misbehaves, is the best softball player in her class. In Kiss the Clown, Joel, Marc's brother who has a learning disability, unintentionally wins the affection of Marc's girlfriend, Viki, because unlike his self-centered brother, Joel is fun to be around. And several characters demonstrate artistic abilities, such as Charlie in Charlie's Challenge, Tommy in The Summer Kid, and Uncle Joe in Life Magic.

Misbehavior. Misbehavior of the character with a learning disability, primarily in school, was commonly portrayed. Generally, the character misbehaves to cover poor academic skills. For example, on the first day of 4th grade, Shirley in Yours Turly, Shirley interprets everything her teacher says literally. Mr. Bradley tells her to take a seat, so Shirley picks up her seat and asks where he would like her to place it. After several similar episodes, Mr. Bradley tires of her antics and embarrasses Shirley by inviting her to come forward to give the class her whole comic routine. Other examples of misbehavior include The Beast in Ms. Rooney's Room, Danny Means Trouble, Me and Einstein, and Sixth Grade Can Really Kill You.

Self-esteem/self-confidence. The lack of self-confidence or self-esteem of characters with learning disabilities was a common characteristic. In some stories characters with LD improve their feelings about themselves once they are diagnosed and/or receive appropriate services. For example, in Different, Not Dumb, Mike's best friend, Jeff, is a member of the highest reading group, while Mike is in the lowest group. Once Mike is tested and placed in the "special reading class," he learns to decode and ends up helping Jeff read the word "explosives" written on a box they find on the playground. Both boys are later congratulated by a policeman for reporting their find, making Mike feel better about himself and his ability to read.

Some of the characters with learning disabilities improve their self-esteem after demonstrating their strengths to others. Kelly in Kelly's Creek explains everything about the fiddler crab to his classmates, and Nehemiah wins an essay contest in I'm Special, Too. In other books the character with LD achieves something notable and receives the recognition he or she has otherwise lacked. George in It's George, for example, is featured on the news for calling 911 and saving an old man's life. Similarly, 11-year-old Jamie in Man from the Sky has difficulty reading, but enjoys "reading the sky." One day he notices a parachutist land in a cow pasture nearby and helps the police locate the parachutist, who happens to be a criminal.

In one book the character's confidence or esteem does not improve over the course of the story. The young girl's father in Somebody Called Me a Retard Today tries to console his daughter after she is called a "retard." She confides to the reader at the end of the book that her heart still feels sad.

Other characterizations. Reversals were portrayed in many of the books as they were manifested in reading (e.g., The Don't Give Up Kid, Father Bede's Misfit), writing letters or numbers (e.g., The Flying Fingers Club, Will the Real Gertrude Hollings Please Stand Up?), writing words (e.g., My Name is [begin strikethrough]Brain[end strikethrough] Brian, Searching for Shona), and speaking (e.g., Josh, the Boy with Dyslexia, The Vicar of Nibbleswicke). Other characteristics portrayed less prominently were perceptual problems (e.g., Keep Stompin' `til the Music Stops), poor memory (e.g., Father Bede's Misfits), poor sequencing skills (e.g., Aunt Morbelia and the Screaming Skulls), and laterality difficulties (e.g., Wall of Words).

Diagnosing Learning Disabilities

Diagnosing the characters' learning disability was a major theme throughout many books. Several books portray parents as unwilling to accept their child's learning problem and/or refusing evaluation, at least initially. For example, in Spaceman Gary's parents are called to a conference at the school. When they are told that Gary is having difficulty in school, his father spends time blaming the teacher. Finally his parents agree to have Gary tested. Another example occurs in Unjust Cause. Davey's professor father makes it clear that his son does not need to be singled out for special help. When confronted by Davey's teacher, Mr. Fischer yells, "Since when do teachers solicit students for their programs? ... Don't you have enough kids with problems in the school? Do you have to create problems where none exist?" (Peterseil, 1998, p. 44).

In some stories parents avoid having their child diagnosed by changing schools. For example, when Willy's mother in Willy's Summer Dream learns that Willy has been tested and that the school wants to place him in a special class, she responds, "Well, we'll just have to get you a transfer again; that's all there is to it" (Brown, 1989, p. 7). Other parents take the initiative to have their child evaluated on their own. When Helen's mother receives a phone call from the school in Sixth Grade Can Really Kill You, Helen overhears her mother's side of the conversation.

   Helen's already been given a reading and IQ test at
   the University of Washington. She has normal
   intelligence. In fact, she's quite bright ... We are
   perfectly aware that she has a reading problem ...
   No, we are not going to consider special education
   ... I'm sorry, but if we don't sign permission, it
   won't do you any good to recommend it ... We are
   working with her at home. (DeClements, 1985, p. 33)

Several books describe the testing experience from the perspective of the person being evaluated. Generally, these experiences are very positive. For example, in What Do You Mean I Have a Learning Disability? Jimmy finds that this testing is different from the other kind of testing he has been given in school, and although some of it involves spelling, reading, and math, at least other students aren't watching. And in The Hard Life of Seymour E. Newton, Peter finds the testing experience to not be as bad as he had anticipated.

Representation of the tests varies. For example, Bill is not diagnosed as dyslexic until he is an adult in Father Bede's Misfit. His evaluation consists of flash cards, number progressions, vocabulary, figure drawing, and the "MultiPhasic Personality Inventory" tests, among others. Sam in Do Bananas Chew Gum? describes several of the tests he is given:

   Pretty much every new part started out easy and
   got hard ... There were lots of different kinds of
   things, like when Ms. Huggins laid these tiles down
   on a table and all the tiles had weird lines on them
   and squiggles and she'd say, "Which shape is different
   from the rest?" ... She was timing all this
   stuff with a stopwatch, and it was hard. Then I was
   supposed to copy circles and arrows and boxes and
   stars and, boy, did I stink at that. So when we
   finally got to some math, it was like a vacation, or
   at least recess. (Gilson, 1980, p. 132)

Schooling

Service placement. The most prominent placement portrayed in books was the resource room. Sometimes the resource room is called a remedial reading class (e.g., Life Magic), a special class (e.g, The Best Fight), or a resource room (e.g., I'm Special, Too). Most portrayals of resource rooms are positive. For example, in Sixth Grade Can Really Kill You before Helen is diagnosed as having a learning disability, she visits the resource room. She observes that there are two teachers with about 14 students, most of them boys. She's impressed with the bank of computers against the back wall and notices one student writing an essay and stopping to look up spelling in a dictionary. The resource room does hot seem as bad as she had expected.

In Life Magic, Crystal appears depressed and discouraged when she learns she has a learning disability and must attend a remedial reading class. But when she finds out that her uncle Joe had difficulty in school, her attitude changes. "If Uncle Joe hadn't told me about his learning troubles, I would have felt like a total worthless nothing. But now remedial reading class was like the cold not being so bad when Uncle Joe and I made snow angels" (Cooper, 1996, p. 46).

Several books identified the difficulty and embarrassment students experience attending pull-out programs. The best example is Kinneret in The Safe Place. Before school, Kinneret's mother reminds her about leaving the general classroom and going to the resource room at 9:00. When 9:00 arrives, Kinneret becomes nervous and doesn't know how to leave the room without interrupting the teacher's lesson and calling attention to herself. Ten minutes later she tentatively raises her hand.

   "What is it?" Mrs. Rubenstein asked, slightly
   annoyed. "It's nine o'clock. I have to go," she
   mumbled. "I can't hear you," Mrs. Rubenstein said,
   walking over to Kinneret's desk. Kinneret pointed
   to her watch. "Oh my, it's 9:10 already. You were
   supposed to leave at nine o'clock. Why didn't you
   go? Tomorrow at exactly nine o'clock I want you to
   get up quietly and leave. Do you understand that?"
   (Peterseil, 1996, pp. 81-82)

As Kinneret leaves the room, she becomes lost and cannot find the resource room. The special education teachers sees her in the hall and brings her into the resource room, volunteering to meet her halfway in the hallway the following day.

A few books portrayed the embarrassment students feel when they need modifications in the general classroom. In My Name is [begin strikethrough]Brain[end strikethrough] Brian, Brian's resource teacher gives him a tape recorder to record his social studies lectures. He tries to disguise the recorder by wrapping it in a paper napkin. But it is to no avail, because his teacher tells the others, "Whenever the class takes notes, Brian will record my lecture. As you probably know, he has a learning disability. He also will be able to spend as long as he needs to on tests" (Betancourt, 1993, pp. 54-55). Brian slumps down in his chair, questioning how his teacher could do this to him.

In a surprisingly high percentage of books, segregated classrooms and schools were advocated for the student with LD. For example, in Me and Einstein nine-year-old Bobby is identified with a learning disability and begins to attend a special education classroom, but he continues to have problems and eventually runs away from home. His parents take him to a psychologist, who discovers that Bobby has dyslexia and recommends that he attend a segregated school, named the Einstein School, "where people understand the problem and where there is a large staff of people to help all the children" (Blue, 1979, np). Other examples of segregated settings included But I'm Ready To Go, Every Living Thing, Just One Friend, Probably Still Nick Swanson, and Spaceman.

In at least three of the books, the character with LD is retained or held back a grade. These included Richard in The Beast in Ms. Rooney's Room, Joshua in The Flunking of Joshua T. Bates, and Morton in M.E. and Morton.

Instructional methodology. Although many of the books centered on the schooling experience, few portrayed actual instructional methodologies. The types of instructional methodologies portrayed include (a) learning strategies (e.g., Egg Drop Blues; Josh, a Boy with Dyslexia; Seventeen Against the Dealer); (b) psycholinguistic training (e,g., Kelly's Creek); (c) compensatory education (e.g., Do Bananas Chew Gum? My Name is [begin strikethrough]Brain[end strikethrough] Brian); (d) multisensory instruction (e.g., Aunt Morbelia and the Screaming Skulls); (e) phonics (e.g, The Beast in Ms. Rooney's Room); (f) tutoring (e.g., And One for All, Just Call Me Stupid); and (g) computer programs (e.g., Alison Walks the Wire).

In most stories the methods are mentioned without any detail. A few describe perceptual motor exercises. Kelly in Kelly's Creek is described as standing with his nose at the chalkboard drawing lopsided circles in both hands. "It was one of the exercises he did in the special class he was in one hour every school day" (Smith, 1975, p. 23). In What Do You Mean I Have a Learning Disability? Jimmy and his classmates complete exercises that improve their visual perception. They do rhythmic writing at the blackboard and visual spatial puzzles and games.

Other books describe skill-based instruction. In Just Call Me Stupid (Birdseye, 1993), Patrick's teacher, Mrs. Nagle, is teaching him to read using a phonetic approach. While playing a new game in which the students race little cars around the letter sounds, Patrick ends up on a square where he is supposed to put S, Q, and U together with A, V, and E.

   "Sssss ..." He felt pressured and couldn't remember
   the sound S, Q, and U make together. He'd known
   before. Why couldn't he recall now? Mrs. Nagle said,
   "It's a nonsense word, but you can do it. Put the
   sounds together." Patrick couldn't believe it. A nonsense
   word? Now she was going to start making him
   read words that didn't mean anything? He wanted
   to yell out, "WHY?" He didn't though. (p. 123)

Teachers. The manner in which teachers are portrayed varies greatly. Most perspectives are from the point of view of the character with LD. For example, in Spaceman Gary receives an "F" written in red on every test and assignment with the comment "Try harder." Gary tells the reader he has received an "F' on everything he has done in fifth grade and that he does not know how to try any harder. In another example, Eli shares his feelings about his teacher, Ms. Hyatt, in Culligan Man Can. "It wasn't enough to sit quietly, his busy thoughts disturbing no one but himself. Ms. Hyatt wanted those busy thoughts slowed. She wanted them sorted and organized, then poured out of his brain like wet cement sliding down a chute" (Kirby, 1988, p. 11).

Some authors describe the teacher from the perspective of sympathetic classmates. In Eddie's Blue-Winged Dragon, Eddie, a 6th grader with cerebral palsy who is a classmate of Gary, who has LD, describes their teacher as not too pleased to have students with special needs in her classroom. "Miss Clark was the kind of person who couldn't tolerate weeds, raggedy edges on paper, or anything noisy" (Adler, 1988, p. 15). In another example, Doris helps her classmate James, also called Yellow Bird, prepare for a big social studies test in Yellow Bird and Me. During the test, their teacher accuses James of cheating. Doris thinks,

   I wanted to raise my hand and tell her that Bird
   knew the dates this morning. If only I could
   explain to her what was wrong with Bird and how
   hard he tried.... Why couldn't she see that there
   was something smart and good in Bird? (Hansen,
   1986, p. 83)

In Just Ferret Minty is asked by her new teacher if a particular day was frightening. Minty insightfully responds, "Not half as bad as an ordinary day with Mrs. Flint ... You see it's the teacher, Miss, that makes the difference" (Kemp, 1990, pp. 124-125).

Some authors portray the general education teacher negatively and the special educator positively. For example, in Josh, the Boy with Dyslexia, Josh recalls the previous year's teacher who pounded his reading book and screamed at him in front of the class. She said he was too slow, messy, and lazy, and he never paid attention. His current teacher, a special educator, is more sensitive to the students.

Not all general educators are portrayed negatively, however. Trisha in Thank You, Mr. Falker has a sensitive and supportive teacher. She is excited to start school and learn to read, only to find reading very difficult. She is teased and embarrassed unbearably until her teacher, Mr. Falker, recognizes her problem and gets help for her.

Relationships

Teasing, bullying, and name calling. In the books that were examined, characters with learning disabilities are commonly teased, bullied, or called names. In Don't Look at Me Patrick's classmates tease him endlessly. He's called "a retard," "the dumbest person who ever lived," and "STUPID," among other things. On the bus his classmates chant, "Patrick is a loser ... couldn't win if he had to." In Freak the Mighty, Max does not respond when his new teacher asks him to share what he did during the summer. One student finally says, "Forget it, Mrs. Donelli, his brain is in his tail!' and another says, "Ask him to count, he can paw the ground!' In I Am Not Dumb Johnny explains his learning disability to Peter, who suggests they ask their teacher to explain his disability to the class so that others will stop teasing Johnny. Other books that present examples of teasing, bullying, and name calling include And Don't Bring Jeremy, Squarehead and Me, and Unjust Cause, among others.

Teaming with others with disability. In several books students who both have difficulties team together to support one another. In Claudia's [begin strikethrough]Friend[end strikethrough] Friend, no one understands Claudia's difficulty with her English class except Shea, who has LD. They work together to show themselves and others just how smart they are. Donald in The Flying Fingers Club struggles with his learning disability as he enters a new school until he befriends Matt, a deaf classmate, who is also new to the school. And in Freak the Mighty, Max, an 8th grader with LD, befriends Kevin, affectionately referred to as Freak, whose birth defect has affected his body but not his genius mind. They join forces to create a powerful team. Other examples of children with disabilities teaming together include Eddie's Blue-Winged Dragon and Matthew Pinkowski's Special Summer.

Siblings. Several books present the perspective of a sibling of the character with LD. In And Don't Bring Jeremy, 6th grader Adam has difficulty making friends after moving to a new neighborhood. He blames it on his older brother, Jeremy, who has a learning disability and often acts younger than Adam. And in He's My Brother, an unnamed young boy describes the home and school experiences of Jamie, his younger brother who has a learning disability.

Some books also describe sibling relationships from the perspective of the character with learning disabilities. In Yours Turly, Shirley, Shirley's parents adopt a Vietnamese girl and name her Jackie. Shirley is thrilled as she teaches her new sister English, until Jackie's skills improve beyond Shirley's. "Shirley could have killed Jackie. This just wasn't fair. It really wasn't. Having a sister as smart as Jackie was worse than having a brother as smart as Joe" (Martin, 1988, p. 56).

DISCUSSION

In more than half of the books analyzed in this study the learning disability plays a major role in the story line. Most of the characters with LD are dynamic, and the main character of the story, with the learning disability predominantly a reading and/or written language disability. Many of these books tell the story of an individual with a learning problem that is finally diagnosed, or the disability is better treated and thus the character's self-esteem improves. Bullying and name calling are common, as is the portrayal of resource rooms. In several stories the parents deny that their child has a disability, and resist evaluation.

Several of the books mention famous people who supposedly had LD. Authors commonly discuss these famous individuals from the perspective of helping the character with LD feel he or she is capable of making great achievements as well. For example, when Bobby, in Me and Einstein, is referred to a special school, he is told that the school is "named for Albert Einstein. It's believed that he had dyslexia too. And so did Thomas Edison, and Woodrow Wilson, Winston Churchill, and Nelson Rockefeller and General Patton and many, many others" (Blue, 1979, np). In another example, Sam in Do Bananas Chew Gum? is told, "Thomas Edison had a learning disability in school, and so did Hans Christian Andersen and Vice President Rockefeller, and President Wilson. They didn't get famous by saying `never'" (Gilson, 1980, p. 142).

Baskin and Harris (1984) in their analysis of children's literature argue that most children do not know these famous individuals and if they did, "It is hard to believe that simply citing names of Albert Einstein, Woodrow Wilson, Winston Churchill, Nelson Rockefeller, and General Patton ... would inspire pride of association in an elementary school child" (p. 90). There is a third reason to question the mention of these famous individuals. Even if children knew these individuals and their accomplishments, the posthumous diagnosis of LD has been greatly disputed (Adelman & Adelman, 1987). Therefore, living examples who have expressed their personal experiences with LD, such as Bruce Jenner, Tom Cruise, Whoopi Goldberg, and Cher, are more appropriate models.

Only 8 of the 90 books (8.9%) analyzed are picture books. Picture books are designed to be read to young children, usually pre-kindergarten through second or third grade. This percentage represents a higher proportion than found in an earlier study in which highly recommended books were analyzed for characters with disabilities. In that study, only 2 of 46 (4%) were found to be picture books (Prater, 2000). Yet another study discovered 13 of 68 books (19%) characterizing mental retardation to be picture books (Prater, 1999). And a more recent review of characterizations of mental retardation and autism found 6 of 12 (50%) books to be picture books (Dyches et al., 2001). It may be that fewer picture books characterize learning disabilities than mental retardation because LD is a "hidden disability" that manifests itself at ages greater than the typical audience for picture books. However, that would not preclude books being written that describe older individuals (such as siblings or friends) who have learning disabilities.

When books written for children and adolescents that portray characters with LD and those that portray characters with mental retardation (Prater, 1999) are compared, it is found that authors portraying LD are more likely to (a) write from the character with LD's point of view (58.9% vs. 18%), (b) portray individuals with LD as dynamic (91.8% vs. 45%), and (c) depict those with LD as the main characters of a story (75.3% vs. 39%).

As with all literary works, one could question the general quality of the books identified in this study. Books characterizing learning disabilities are vulnerable to the same flaws as any other literary work. As described by Baskin and Harris (1977), most are of modest quality, some are inept, and a few are extraordinary. One book, Dicey's Song, received international recognition as a Newbery Award Winning Book. Interestingly, the character with LD is only a supporting character, and the role her learning disability plays in the story line is minor. More Newbery Award books have characterized mental retardation (Prater, 1999) than learning disabilities.

Given that understanding of learning disabilities has evolved, many juvenile books promote practices that are not current and up-to-date. The researcher elected to evaluate all books that could be identified rather than restricting them to the last 10 or 20 years. This was done because even older books are currently available on public and school library shelves. (The researcher had difficulty locating only 1 of the originally identified 105 books.) One particular outdated aspect is the application of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). For example, in some books students are identified for and receive special education services or change placements without parental permission. This might be excused with the consideration that most books are written from the perspective of a child who might not be aware of the procedures, even if they did take place. Unfortunately, excluding applications of IDEA regulations may promote misconceptions about special education.

Some of the books include factual information about learning disabilities separate from the story. For example, the story of How Dyslexic Benny Became a Star is followed by resource information such as discussion questions and a list of advocacy organizations. I'm Special, Too includes teacher lesson activities; I Am Not Dumb lists discussion questions and activities; and Josh, a Boy with Dyslexia provides answers to questions about learning disabilities.

Other books include this information as a prominent part of the story. Learning My Way and I'm a Winner provides specific information about learning disabilities from the perspective of a fictional character, who defines special education jargon, such as individualized education plans (IEPs), as part of his description. Similarly, Kevin's Story is written from the perspective of a 10-year-old fictional character. After being diagnosed with a reading disability, Kevin meets with the psychologist several times so she can explain how the brain functions and why he is having trouble learning to read. And in What Do You Mean I Have a Learning Disability? the reader follows the experiences of 10-year-old Jimmy being tested, diagnosed, and receiving help with his academic problems.

As mentioned in the introduction, authors use characters with disabilities in children's literature for two purposes: first, to focus on the life of an individual with a disability; and second, to portray the diversity in our society. A large proportion of the books in this study appeared to be written with the first goal in mind: to share the life of an individual, primarily a child, with a learning disability. These books provide a good foundation for bibliotherapy. For example, students referred for individual evaluation may benefit from reading or hearing the story of a child who had the same experience in preparation for the testing process. Also, students without disabilities may gain some empathy for those with a learning disability through reading or hearing stories of children who are bullied because they have a learning difference. Thus, there is great value in books of this nature.

The researcher was disappointed, however, that more of these books did not take the second focus: telling a great story that just happened to include a character with a learning disability. Given the incidence of learning disabilities in our society, one would expect more characterizations embedded in quality storytelling, particularly for children and adolescents.

Limitations

Several limitations to this study can be identified. First, no reliability data were taken. Although the researcher applied definitions for characterization classification, the judgments could be considered subjective. The method of identifying themes through the process of note taking may also be considered subjective.

Although attempts were made to locate all books written for children and adolescents with a character with LD published before 2001, one cannot ensure that all were located. The researcher relied on previous identification of the books by others through electronic and published booklists, as well as electronic searches. Electronic booklists provided more recently published books, but also added most of the questionable books that were later excluded from the study because they did not include reference to a learning disability. Books including characters whose primary disability appeared to be ADHD were also excluded. This could be considered a limitation, as characteristics associated with ADHD may be similar to those associated with learning disabilities (O'Shea, O'Shea, & Algozzine, 1998).

The researcher attempted to include only books with characterizations that were clearly learning disabilities by applying strict inclusion criteria. However, there were five books for which characterization of LD could be questioned. These books were not excluded from the study because the disability could be characterized as LD. In Leo, the Late Bloomer (Kraus, 1971), for example, Leo is portrayed as a young lion who has difficulty with many skills. He suddenly overcomes these difficulties. One could easily argue that Leo's problems may be accounted for by maturation. Yet this book appears on several LD booklists (e.g., Bauer, 1985; Gold, 1983; www.ldonline.org/ld_store/bibliotherapy/ldbooks.html).

In four additional books the character could have a learning disability although it is not clear. The young girl in Someone Called Me a Retard Today, for example, is consoled by her father after being called "a retard." The author provides no other indication of the girl's condition. This book appears on booklists of characters with developmental disabilities (Orr et al., 1997) and learning disabilities (Blaska, 1996). Other books with characters identified by reviewers as representing both mental retardation and learning disabilities include Keep Stompin' Till the Music Stops (Baskin & Harris, 1984; Garry, 1978), M.E. and Morton (Heim, 1994; Robertson, 1992), and One Little Girl (Baskin & Harris, 1977; Rudman, 1995). These books were not excluded from the study because the characters portrayed could be classified as having a learning disability.

Implications for Practice

The results of this study support several practical implications for both teachers and teacher educators. Teachers cannot assume that books appearing on LD booklists in fact include characters with LD. Nor does the mere presence of a character with learning disabilities guarantee that appropriate characterization or upto-date practices are depicted. Teachers are encouraged, therefore, to read the books in advance to evaluate the appropriateness of the characterizations and services described before using them in the classroom or recommending them to students, parents, or librarians.

Teachers can use juvenile literature to teach about learning disabilities in the classroom. They may integrate these books across the curriculum or focus specific lessons on learning about LD. Even books with questionable or outdated portrayals and practices can be used as nonexamples of current and appropriate practice. Teachers are cautioned, however, that the use of nonexamples requires appropriate instruction to ensure that misconceptions are not promoted. Regardless of the manner in which teachers use juvenile literature in their classroom, students need an opportunity to discuss reactions to the books and relate concepts portrayed to their personal lives.

Teacher educators can integrate these books in characteristics and methods courses. For example, in a characteristics course, university students could compare the characteristics portrayed in a juvenile fiction book with the characteristics learned in the course. In methods courses, student can write lesson plans involving the use of books to teach about learning disabilities. In addition, children's literature courses should incorporate books with characters with LD as required reading; and textbook authors preparing materials for future teachers could provide lists of appropriate books as part of their curriculum.

CONCLUSIONS

This study analyzed children and adolescent literature published prior to 2001 that portrays characters with learning disabilities. Ninety books met the criteria and were locatable. This number represents a small percentage of juvenile fiction literature currently available on library, school, and home bookshelves. Why more books have not been written that include characters with LD remains unclear. Teachers and teacher educators are urged to seek out fictional portrayals of learning disabilities and use them as teaching tools in their classrooms. Similarly, parents and librarians are encouraged to include books portraying individuals with learning disabilities in their home and library collections.

Table 1

Empirical Studies Examining Portrayal of Disabilities in Juvenile
Literature

Author                                      Number, Type, and
(Year)            Purpose                   Publication Dates

Ayala             Determine extent to       59 fiction &
(1999)            which story line and      nonfiction,
                  characters with dis-      1974-1996.
                  abilities mirror soci-
                  ety.
Harrill et al.    Compare portrayal         15 pre-1978 &
(1993)            of disabilities pre-      30 post-1978
                  and post-P.L. 94-142      fiction & nonfiction.
                  (defined as 1978).
Prater            Determine how             68 fiction, 1965-1996.
(1999)            mental retardation
                  (MR) and related
                  issues are portrayed.
Dyches            Analyze portrayal of      12 fiction,
et al.            MR, autism, and           1997-1998.
(2001)            related themes,
                  Compare with Prater
                  (1999) results.

Author
(Year)            Methodology               Results

Ayala             Books read.               Most common portrayals
(1999)            Characterization and      were orthopedic impair-
                  trends analyzed and       ments (22%), male
                  compared with cur-        (52%), Caucasian (50%),
                  rent demographics.        varied settings (53%),
                                            protagonist as "hero"
                                            (63%). Other results:
                                            character portrayed as
                                            victim (10%), realistic
                                            portrayals (20%).
Harrill et al.    Four teachers rated       Books published after
(1993)            randomly selected         1978 improved in terms
                  books on 10 state-        of absence of stereo-
                  ments.                    typing, appropriate
                                            role models, realistic
                                            illustrations, use of
                                            nondiscriminatory lan-
                                            guage, frequency of
                                            interactions between
                                            those with and without
                                            disabilities, among
                                            other areas.
Prater            Books read, portrayals    Most characters were
(1999)            categorized, and          supporting (61%) and
                  notes taken and           static (54%). Few books
                  analyzed for emer-        were written from pers-
                  gence of themes.          pective of character
                                            with MR (13%). Most
                                            portrayed characters as
                                            victims and dependent
                                            on family members. Few
                                            included school, em-
                                            ployment, or recreatio-
                                            nal settings. Almost
                                            all described some form
                                            of outdated practice
                                            (e.g., sheltered
                                            workshops).
Dyches            Books read and notes      Most portrayals were
et al.            taken regarding char-     main, dynamic, posi-
(2001)            acterization of           tive, and realistic.
                  MR/autism, relation-      Few were written from
                  ship of characters to     the perspective of
                  others, and related       character with MR/
                  themes.                   autism. Relationships
                                            with others similar to
                                            Prater (1999) results.
                                            Most portrayed up-to-
                                            date practice (e.g.,
                                            inclusion).

Table 2

World Wide Web Children's Booklist Pages Accessed April 14, 2001

Page Title                                    Internet Address

CEC and ERIC Clearinghouse on Disabilities and Gifted Education:
Children's Books for Students
  with Learning Disabilities         www.cec.sped.org/ericec.org/fact/
                                     kidbooks.html
Come Unity: Children's Special
  Needs and Disability Books         www.comeunity.com/dbooklist.html
LD Store: Children's Books About
  Disabilities                       www.ldonline.org/ld_store/biblio-
                                     therapy/ldbooks.html
LDA-CA Bookstore: LD Books for
  Children and Youth                 www.ldaca.org/books/ldyouth.html

Table 3

Books Reviewed in This Study

Title, Author, (Illustrator), Publisher, Year [Grade/Interest Level]

* (+) Adam Zigzag by Barbara Barrie, Delacorte, 1994 [7-9].
(+) Alison Walks the Wire by Sheri Cooper Sinykin, Magic Attic, 1996
[4-6].
Altogether, One at a Time by E. L. Konigsburg (Mercer Meyer), Atheneum,
1971 [4-6].
(+) And Don't Bring Jeremy by Marilyn Levinson (Diane deGroat),
Holt/Rinehart/Winston, 1985 [4-6].
* (+) And One for All by Theresa Nelson, Orchard, 1989 [7-12].
* (+) Angie by Pat Bezzant, Fawcett Juniper, 1994 [9-12].
(+) Aunt Morbelia and the Screaming Skulls by Joan Davenport Carris,
Little Brown, 1990 [4-6].
* (+) The Beast in Ms. Rooney's Room by Patricia Reilly (Gift & Blanche
Sims), Dell, 1984 [2-4].
* (+) The Best Fight by Anne Schlieper (Mary Beth Schwark), Whitman,
1995 [2-5].
The Best Way Out by K. Follis Cheatham, Harcourt/Brace/Jovanovich, 1982
[7-9].
* (+) But I'm Ready to Go by Louise Albert, Bradbury, 1976 [4-6].
(+) Candy Corn Contest by Patricia Reilly Gift (Blanche Sims), Dell,
1984 [2-4].
* (+) Charlie's Challenge by Ann Root and Linda Gladden (Anne Nelson
Sweat), Printmaster, 1995 [2-4].
Claudia's [begin strikethrough]Freid[end strikethrough] Friend by Ann M.
Martin, Scholastic, 1993 [4-6].
(+) Culligan Man Can by Susan Kirby, Abingdon, 1988 [4-6].
* (+) Danny Means Trouble by Jamie Suzanne, Bantam, 1990 [3-6].
Dicey's Song by Cynthia Voight, Atheneum, 1982 [5-8].
* (+) Different, Not Dumb by Margot Marek (Barbara Kirk, photo), Watts,
1985 [2-3].
* (+) Do Bananas Chew Gum? by Jamie Gilson, Pocket, 1980 [4-6].
* (+) The Don't-Give-Up Kid by Jeane Gehret (Sandra Ann DePauw), Verbal
Images, 1990 [K-3].
* (+) Don't Look at Me by Doris Sanford (Graci Evans), Multnomah,
1986 [K-3].
Eddie's Blue-Winged Dragon by C. S. Adler, Putnam, 1988 [4-6].
(+) Egg Drop Blues by Jacqueline Turner Banks, Houghton Mifflin, 1995
[4-6].
The Elderberry Thicket by Joan T. Zeier, Atheneum, 1990 [5-8].
(+) Every Living Thing by Cynthia Rylant (S. D. Schindler), Bradbury,
1985 [4-6].
(+) Father Bede's Misfit by Phil H. Troyer, York, 1986 [9-12].
* (+) The Flunking of Joshua T. Bates by Susan Shreve, Knopt, 1984
[2-4].
(+) The Flying Fingers Club by Jean F. Andrews, Kendall Green, 1988
[3-5].
(+) Freak the Mighty by Rodman Philbrick, Scholastic, 1993 [5-8].
Handles by Jan Mark, Atheneum, 1985 [6-9].
* (+) Happy Birthday Jason by C. Jean Cutbill & Diane Rawsthorn, IPI,
1984 [2-4].
* (+) The Hard Life of Seymour E. Newton by Ann B. Herold, (Sherry
Neidigh), Herald, 1990 [2-5].
(+) Hasta Luego, San Diego by Jean F. Andrews, Kendall Green, 1991
[4-6].
Herbie Jones by Suzy Kline (Richard Williams), Putnam, 1985 [2-4].
* He's My Brother by Joe Lasker (Joe Lasker), Whitman, 1984 [K-3].
(+) Home is Where Your Feet are Standing by Patricia Windsor,
HarperCollins, 1975 [7-12].
* (+) How Dyslexic Benny Became a Star by Joe Griffith (Jenny Schulz),
1998 [4-6].
(+) How Many Days Until Tomorrow? by Caroline Janover (Charlotte
Janover), Woodbine House, 2000 [4-6].
* (+) I Am Not Dumb by Ahmed Motiar, Z.A.N. Press, 1979 [3-5].
* (+) I'm Special, Too by Darlene M. McCarty, (Napoleon Wilkerson),
African American Images, 1997 [4-6].
* It's George by Miriam Cohen (Lillian Hoban), Greenwillow, 1988 [K-3].
(+) Jake McGee and his Feet by Mary Waldorf, Houghton Mifflin, 1980
[4-7].
* (+) Josh, a Boy with Dyslexia by Caroline Janover, Waterfront, 1988
[4-6].
* (+) Just Call Me Stupid by Tom Birdseye, Holiday House, 1993 [4-6].
(+) Just Ferret by Gene Kemp, Faber & Faber, 1990 [4-6].
* (+) Just One Friend by Lynn Hall, Scribner, 1985 [5-8].
(+) Keep Stompin' Till the Music Stops by Stella Pevsner, Clarion, 1977
[4-6].
* (+) Kelly's Creek by Doris Buchanan Smith (Alan Tiegreen), Crowell,
1975 [4-6].
* (+) Kevin's Story by Dvora Levinson, IPI, 1984 [3-5].
(+) Kiss the Clown by C. S. Adler, Houghton Mifflin, 1986 [7-9].
* (+) Learning My Way and I'm a Winned by Judy Harris Swenson & Roxanne
Brown Kunz (Lynne J. Kratoska), Dillon, 1986 [3-6].
(+) Leo, the Late Bloomer by Robert Kraus (Jose Aruego), Simon &
Schuster,. 1971 [K-3].
(+) Life Magic by Melrose Cooper, Holt, 1996 [4-6].
M.E. and Morton by Sylvia Cassedy, Crowell, 1987 [5-8].
(+) Man from the Sky by Avi, Morrow, 1980 [4-6].
(+) Matthew Pinkowski's Special Summer by Patrick J. Quinn, Gallaudet
University, 1991 [5-8].
* (+) Me and Einstein by Rose Blue (Peggy Luks), Human Sciences, 1979
[4-6].
(+) Me and My Million by Clive King, Crowell, 1979 [4-7].
(+) Megan's Nutcracker Prince by Emily Costello, Harper, 1994 [3-6].
* (+) My Name is [begin strikethrough]Brain[end strikethrough] Brian
by Jeanne Betancourt, Scholastic, 1993 [4-7].
* (+) One Little Girl by Joan Fassler, Jane M. Smyth), Behavioral,
1969 [K-3].
* (+) Probably Still Nick Swansen by Virginia Euwer Wolff, Holt, 1988
[6-10].
Putting Up with Sherwood by Ellen Matthews, Westminster, 1980 [4-7].
(+) The Runaways by Ruth Thomas, Lippincott, 1989 [6-8].
(+) Running Scared by Jane Morton, Dutton, 1979 [5-8].
* (+) The Safe Place by Tehila Peterseil (Zely Smechov), Pitspopany,
1996 [4-7].
Searching for Shona by Margaret J. Anderson, Bullseye, 1978 [4-7].
* (+) Secrets Aren't Always for Keeps by Barbara Aiello & Jeffrey
Shulman (Loel Bart), Twenty-First Century, 1988 [3-5].
Seventeen Against the Dealer by Cynthia Voight, Atheneum, 1989 [9-12].
* (+) Sixth Grade Can Really Kill You by Barthe DeClements, Scholastic,
1985 [4-7].
* (+) Sixth Grade Sleepover by Eve Bunting, Harcourt/Brace/Jovanovich,
1986 [5-7].
(+) Solution for Randy's Problem by Glennis Koenig (Ronald E. Kropt),
Blue Ribbon Bookhouse, 1993 [K-3].
* (+) Somebody Called Me a Retard Today ... and My Heart Felt Sad by
Ellen O'Shaughnessy (Chuck Hall), Holt/Rinehart/Winston, 1979 [2-3].
* (+) Spaceman by Jane Cutler, Dutton, 1997 [4-6].
Squarehead and Me by Henry Louis Haynes (Len Epstein), Westminster,
1980 [5-8].
*The Summer Kid by Myrna Neuringer Levy, Second Story, 1991 [4-6].
* (+) Thank You, Mr. Falker by Patricia Polacco, Philomel, 1998 [K-3].
Thunder and Lightenings by Jan Mark (Jim Russell), Crowell, 1976 [3-6].
* (+) Unjust Cause by Tehila Peterseil, Pitspopany, 1998 [4-6].
Us and Uncle Fraud by Lois Lowry, Houghton Mifflin, 1984 [4-6].
* (+) The Vicar of Nibbleswicke by Roald Dahl (Quentin Blake), Viking,
1992 [4-6].
Wall of Words by Tim Kennemore, Faber, 1983 [9-12].
* (+) Whales to See The by Glendon and Kathryn Swarthout, Doubleday,
1975 [4-7].
* (+) What Do You Mean I Have a Learning Disability? by Kathleen M.
Dwyer (Barbara Beirne, photo), Walker, 1991 [2-5].
(+) Will the Real Gertrude Hollings Please Stand Up? by Sheila
Greenwald, Little/Brown, 1983 [5-8].
(+) Willy's Summer Dream by Kay Brown, Harcourt Brace, 1989 [7-9].
(+) The Worst Speller in Junior High by Caroline Janover, Free Spirit,
1995 [6-9].
* (+) Wrongway Applebaum by Marjorie Lewis (Margot Apple), Coward, 1984
[4-6].
* Yellow Bird and Me by Joyce Hansen, Clarion, 1986 [6-8].
* (+) You Can Do It Rosy by Sybil Fleming, Syanacon, 1999 [K-3].
* (+) Yours Turly, Shirley by Ann M. Martin, Holiday House, 1988 [4-6].

* Learning disability plays a major role in the plot.

(+) Some of or the entire book is written from the point of view of the
character with a learning disability.

Table 4

Characterization by Level, Development, Point of View, and Impact of
Disability on the Plot

                                                   Number    Percentage

Character Level                                     N=97        100
  * Main                                             73          75.3
  * Supporting                                       24          24.7
Character Development                               N=97        100
  * Dynamic                                          89          91.8
  * Static                                            8           8.2
Point of View                                       N=90         99.9
  * Individual(s) with a Learning Disability         53          58.9
  * Individual(s) Without a Learning Disability      22          24.4
  * Both                                             13          14.4
  * Narrative                                         2           2.2
Impact of Disability on Plot                        N=90         99.9
  * Major                                            47          52.2
  * Somewhat                                         31          34.4
  * Minor                                            12          13.3

Table 5

Type of Disabilities Portrayed in Children's Literature

                        Number
Type of Disability   (Percentage)   Sample List of Books

Reading               70 (72.2)     Adam Zigzag
                                    The Beast in Ms. Rooney's Room
                                    The Best Fight
                                    The Candy Corn Contest
                                    Different, Not Dumb
                                    Just Call Me Stupid
                                    Sixth Grade Can Really Kill You
                                    Thank You, Mr. Falker
Written Language      36 (37.1)     Do Bananas Chew Gum?
                                    The Hard Life of Seymour E. Newton
                                    It's George
                                    My Name is [begin stiketrough]
                                      Brian[end strikethrough]
                                    Secrets Aren't Always for Keeps
                                    Unjust Cause
                                    The Worst Speller in Junior High
Math                   7 (7.2)      Eddie's Blue-Winged Dragon
                                    Putting Up with Sherwood
                                    Yours. Turly, Shirley
Social Skills          7 (7.2)      Angle
                                    Just One Friend
                                    Solution for Randy's Problem
Oral Language          5 (5.2)      The Safe Place
                                    The Summer Kid
                                    The Vicar of Nibblesworth
Motor                  5 (5.2)      And Don't Bring Jeremy
                                    Home is Where Your Feet are
                                      Standing
                                    Wrongway Applebaum

Note. The total number of identified characters equaled 97. Totals do
not equal 97 nor 100% because characters may have manifested more than
one type of learning disability.

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NOTES

Requests for reprints should be addressed to: Mary Anne Prater, 328 MCKB, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602. [e-mail].

MARY ANNE PRATER, Ph.D., is professor, Brigham Young University.