Le Boubou--C'est Chic: Les boubous du Mali et d'autres pays de l'Afrique de l'Ouest.

Bernard Gardi

Museum der Kulturen Basel and Editions Christoph Merian, Basel, 2000. Text in French. 207 pp., 179 illustrations, map, bibliography. SF 36 hardcover; German edition DM 41.

Le Boubou--c'est chic, the catalogue for the exhibition of the same name held at the Museum der Kulturen Basel (May-October, 2000), is a timely and welcome addition to the literature on African textiles and dress. Mostly written by Bernard Gardi, it includes additional essays by Edward Bandeen, Hermann Forkl, Edward Norris, Fatoumata Bouare Kone, and Salia Male. Boubous are virtually unknown outside the African continent, and people often comment on the grace and allure of the men and women who wear them. Blaise Cendrars emphasizes these attributes in his 1924 poem "Les Boubous," a lovely introduction to the catalogue. Gardi's intent is to fill the gaps in the literature on "this remarkable clothing tradition" (p. 7), which embodies prominent aspects of west African textile arts (p. 9).

The catalogue is divided into four overarching chapters subdivided into smaller sections. The first chapter, "Boubous from West Africa," is a comprehensive introduction to historical boubou forms and embroidery traditions. The word boubou, derived from the Wolof word mbubb, designates a large gown with long sleeves or a shirt that slips over the head. The grand boubou (big boubou) consists of a gown worn over a shirt and trousers for men, and over a wrapper with a head-scarf for women. Gardi continually stresses the importance of the social, political, economic, and religious implications of these prestige garments. A lovely photograph of the caliph of Dinguiraye, Guinea, with his retinue in full regalia, illustrates this point.

The author examines the appearance of the boubou and analyzes its provenance, making historical and contextual attributions. His premise is that manufacturing techniques are stable scientific criteria that yield cultural and historical information. He separates appearance (his central theme) from the meanings of motifs and decorations, for which he suggests there is too little evidence to draw definitive conclusions. Gardi acknowledges the rich literature on Hausa Nupe boubou forms and embroidery (Heathcote 1995; Perani & Wolff 1999) and mentions recent work on Ghana (Gott 1994). He stresses the need for a wider view of west African boubou styles and their interrelationships. This point is enhanced by a discussion of the rich terminology designating boubous (and their manufacture), and the fact that linguistic similarities from different regions may indicate interesting historical correlations (p. 17).

Gardi then formulates a typology of ten classical grand boubou styles from the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, using decoration and cut as criteria for division. These include the Malian tilbi and lomasa boubous, Liberian and Sierra Leone mandingo boubous, the Nigerian Hausa-Nupe rigas and Yoruba agbadas, boubous from Segou (about which little is known, represented by a Musee de l'Homme example), Cameroon Grasslands boubous, Cote d'Ivoire Diula and Senufo boubous, patchwork boubous from Liberia (this type is pictured in a 1907 postcard), and indigo resist-dyed boubous from Senegal, Senegambia, and Western Mali. This last category is represented in the book by stunning examples from all three areas. To emphasize the wide range and variety of these garments, Gardi also illustrates boubous from the Guinea Coast, Fulani and Wodaabe boubous from Mali and Niger, and Bamana shirts embroidered by "Ghana Boys." The author points out weaving styles, the shape of pectoral pockets (triangular or rectangular), embroidery designs and their colors as other distinguishing factors and emphasizes that African artists had aesthetic solutions to technical problems; for example, the plaited band, or sharaba, around the neck is used to both embellish and reinforce the boubou's structure (p. 22). In this first chapter he also introduces the subjects of indigo dyeing and damask, which are discussed in detail by Fatoumata Bouare Kone and Edward Norris respectively in the last chapter.

Like others (Heathcote 1995:40), Gardi suggests that designs might have Islamic origins and represent amulets, and that their similarities may derive from the migrations of embroiderers (p. 26). Embodying the "Islamic way of life" (p. 25), boubous are worn by Hausa, Fulani, and Soninke merchants. They are also the garments of Islamic minorities near the coast. Except for two tunics in the Ulmer Museum, the earliest examples came into European museum collections in 1841. The author ends this chapter with an analysis of Tellem textiles (llth-16th centuries) from Mali and the two tunics from the Ulmer Museum, which exhibit manufacturing and decorative techniques (such as braided spirals) still in use in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.

This introduction is impressive, and Gardi should be praised for organizing such complex data into a coherent whole. He notes the difficulty of narrow categorization by region and ethnic group, reminding the reader that this clothing style reflects the movements of people, their interrelationships, and the constant negotiation of change.

The second chapter, "Islam," suggests a way of understanding and approaching decorative motifs. Edward Bandeen discusses the protective properties of amulets in the Islamic tradition and interprets four amulets in a book from King Njoya's library, now in the Basel Mission collection. Hermann Forkl analyzes an amulet purchased in Mali in 1980 and draws parallels with the embroidered motif on a Mandingo boubou that is illustrated in the catalogue. Both essays reiterate the idea that embroidered designs may illustrate various facets of Islamic esoteric sciences.

The third chapter, much longer than the first two, discusses seven of the boubou categories listed in the typology. The typology's value lies in the fact many of these forms are still relatively unknown. Gardi addresses their historical development (if such information is available), and examines their technical and stylistic characteristics in great detail.

The first category, for example, concerns Hausa, Nupe, and Yoruba boubous. Gardi divides these boubous into three categories based on embroidery motifs, noting differences with the Yoruba agbadas. These forms developed as a creative response to political and religious upheavals at the beginning of the nineteenth century, and Gardi highlights the ongoing artistic exchange between the weavers and embroiderers. The Cameroon Grasslands represent a cultural transition between west and central Africa, and the early use of boubous there is thought to result from a Hausa and Yoruba influence (p. 86). The Bamileke were instrumental in designing long T-shaped shirts, known as bali, which represent an interesting variation on classical boubou forms. Worn by chiefs, Mandingo boubous are shorter and smaller than others. Their uniqueness lies in the human and animal figural motifs embroidered on the front and back. The fact that some Mandingo boubous display garlands might also suggest a European influence (p. 128).

Gardi's discussion of Malian tilbi and lomasa reiterates the role of boubous as important social and economic markers. These garments are highly visible because of their textiles (strip-woven cotton) and silk embroidery motifs. The author provides specific information on the weaving, dyeing, and embroidery techniques involved. The light-colored tilbi boubous are said to epitomize wealth and luxury, although Gardi draws the reader's attention to their monochrome appearance, which he describes as having a "monastic quality" (p. 98). Well documented in the early literature, lomasas are dyed with indigo (the Bamana word lomasa refers to a garment dyed a dark color, p. 104) and display colorful filigree-like embroidery stitches. The clarity of motifs inspires Gardi to draw parallels with Tuareg and Mauritanian designs (p. 109). He lists the names of dyers, weavers, and embroiderers where possible. For example, in highlighting Diula and Senufo boubous that have woven as opposed to embroidered motifs, he includes a photograph of the master weaver Fettege Daanyogo beside one of his boubous. A nice touch.

In his preface (p. 7), Gardi suggests that Mali played an important role in spreading the boubou tradition because of its geographical position and because of trade. It might have been more appropriate then, for the chapter's structure and flow, to begin with the tilbi and lomasa boubous rather than the familiar Hausa-Nupe examples. I personally look forward to Gardi's future explorations on the subject. This third chapter does not include sections on patchwork boubous from Liberia, boubous from Segou, or indigo resist-dyed boubous from Senegal, Senegambia, and Mali. While they are illustrated in the first part of the book, I agree with the author that it is unfortunate there is not more information on these rich traditions. These remarks are not meant to detract from the quality of this chapter. Gardi's systematic evaluation and analysis are an important contribution to the field, and will prove invaluable for future research. In all, the chapter is very informative, providing details on boubou forms and their regional variations, and it is richly illustrated with pictures of stunning boubous, many field photographs, and images from early prints and postcards.

The last chapter addresses boubous produced today, which are characterized by a certain uniformity of style (p. 155). It includes essays on damask, indigo dyeing, and the fashion industry in Bamako. Edward Norris addresses the use and development of damask in west Africa, where it is called bazin or bazin riche. After reviewing the history, manufacture, finishing processes, and economic and commercial characteristics of this textile, Norris analyzes its usage patterns from the colonial period to present times: damask is now available at duty-free shops in Jeddah, Medina, and Mecca, where pilgrims order their boubous from west African tailors and embroiderers.

Fatoumata Bouare Kone discusses the dyeing industry in Mali, which is mostly aimed at the clothing trade. A charming 1909 postcard of the wife of a Wolof merchant wearing a dyed wrapper introduces her essay. Kone looks at the history of dyeing practices, the roles of women dyers, and their work structure. Her examination of different dyeing techniques helps the reader understand the different boubous illustrated. She also points out the use of commercial dyes, and notes that dyers now use catalogues to show clients.

The last section deals with embroiderers, tailors, and the fashion industry in Bamako. Salia Male discusses work methodologies, client-patron relationships, and client choices. These range from classic styles to boubous inspired by the African Diaspora, such as "Grand Dakar" or "Washington." The author also examines the ironing techniques used to keep the damask flat and shiny. Chapter 4 is very detailed, and the last two essays, by Kone and Male, are rich with echoes of the field--a fitting way to end the catalogue.

Le Boubou--c'est chic is a thoughtful study of this west African garment tradition and will appeal to both specialists and general readers. I was impressed by Gardi's engaging writing style and his ability to weave history, complex technical explanations, and narrative into his chapters. Considering that this is an edited volume, he should be complimented for its unified voice.

The catalogue is beautifully designed, beginning with the detail of a lomasa on the cover. The abundant color photographs are of outstanding quality, and the captions are meticulous: they read as a second text. Dates, provenance, and previous publication data are given for all of the examples, and pertinent collection data are included as well. The map is clear and locates the places mentioned in the text. The catalogue includes information on the contributors, a bibliography, and a list of the seventeen lomasa boubous and the twenty-three mandingo boubous in museum collections. Many of these garments are published here for the first time (p. 7), so the catalogue is an invaluable visual resource. An explanatory index of technical terms would have been useful for readers not familiar with the terminology.

Gardi has successfully proven that "a boubou is much more than a simple garment, it is a whole style" (p. 9). Le Boubou--c'est chic is a study of historical styles and techniques as well as the trends and fashions of the twenty-first century. I hope it will encourage new research in a field that is still wide open.

Notes

Gott, Edith Suzanne. 1994. "In Celebration of the Female: Dress, Aesthetics, Performance and Identity in Contemporary Asante." Ph.D. dissertation, Indiana University.

Heathcote, David. 1995. "Aspects of Embroidery in Nigeria," in The Art of African Textiles: Technology, Tradition and Lurex by John Picton, pp. 39-40. London: Barbican Art Gallery.

Perani, Judith and Norma Wolff. 1999. Cloth, Dress and Art Patronage in Africa. Oxford and New York: Berg.

KRISTYNE LOUGHRAN received her Ph.D. in African art history from Indiana University in 1996. She is an independent scholar and lives in Florence, Italy.