Lamba Hoany: proverb cloths from Madagascar.

The island republic of Madagascar, lying some 400 kilometers off the coast of east Africa, is touted as the only African country with a single language. Yet the peoples of each of its eighteen officially recognized Malagasy ethnic groups speak a distinct and often mutually incomprehensible dialect of the Malagasy language. Moreover, house types, hairstyles, and modes of dress are specific to each group. One item of clothing that is shared island-wide, however, is the "proverb cloth," or Lamba hoany.

Cousins of the perhaps more familiar khanga from Kenya and the east coast of Africa, lamba hoany are rectangular factory, cloths (measuring approximately 50" x 65") manufactured in either Madagascar or India (Fig. 1).(1) They are generally made of cotton, rayon, or a cotton-rayon blend, and include an overall pattern of repeating designs, often with a central medallion, surrounded by a decorative border. The lamba hoany's most distinctive feature is its incorporation of a Malagasy proverb or other short saying just above the lower border.

The term lamba in its most general sense signifies cloth or clothing. It also denotes a particular rectangular shoulder wrap or scarf regarded as the national clothing, and for the peoples of the central highlands, it is particularly a powerful symbol of highland identity. Worn throughout a person's adult life, lamba, also called lamba fitafy (Fee 2002:78), are traditionally made of natural cotton, or better yet, of silk, and are preferably handwoven.(2)

There are numerous other subcategories of lamba, each designated by a particular name, shape, material, and use.(3) The lamba hearty, however, is arguably the most pervasive textile in Madagascar and the only one that is historically and consistently factory-made. The term hoany itself does not have a direct translation, although he any means "to" or "for" someone. It might therefore possibly be understood as referring to a cloth "for someone" or, perhaps, "for the people." Lightweight and inexpensive, the cloth is used and worn daily by virtually every adult in Madagascar's expansive rural landscape.

Although most often used as a work cloth that can be easily washed and quickly dried, the lamba hoany is not only beautiful but versatile. As clothing worn primarily by women, the cloth (or other lightweight cloths with similar decorative patterning) may be worn in several ways. If the temperature drops, it may be wrapped around one's shoulders as a shawl. If it becomes exceedingly cold, the cloth's upper edge may be slipped over the head so that the shawl becomes a hooded cape that one holds tightly below file chin (Fig. 2). Although lamba hearty are

The textiles illustrated in this article are from the author's collection

I entered graduate school at Indiana University in the fall of 1988, drawn by the possibility of studying with Patrick R. McNaughton and Roy Sieber. I had heard a great deal about the latter in particular, but was unprepared for my first encounter I did not expect so eminent a scholar to look like Santa Claus and to giggle so devilishly 

I appreciated Roy's incredible expertise and amazing knowledge, as welt as his connections with what seemed to be anyone and everyone in the field. Some of the most enjoyable and challenging learning experiences he provided were the hands-on encounters, whether field trips to the IU Art Museum and the Indianapolis Museum of Art, to collectors' homes, or to a nearby motel room transformed into an African market by a traveling art trader His own home was always open, itself an amazing collection of objects and artworks. sometimes stacked precariously one on top of another, with his and Sophie's armchairs hidden somewhere in the midst of it all. Sophie Sieber was an integral part of who Roy was; she was his constant companion, colleague, and fell for his wicked humor.

Always the teacher, Roy continually brought the arts and peoples of Africa into focus and loved to test students any time an opportunity arose One could never predict when he might pop a quiz or a question: In a museum? Upon bumping into him in the hallway with a recent publication on African art in his hand? During a "brief" stop to his home or office? In the local gun shop that periodically stocked merchandise from African traders? He was a connoisseur of the highest caliber--he really knew his stuff!

Roy's playfulness and intellectual energy did not stop in the classroom, for he truly loved life, a good joke, a clever turn of phrase, a pun. In fact, the worse the pun, the better I myself shared this fondness, and although I was an aspiring academic trying to hold my own in the intellectual and scholarly circle that he inhabited, Roy always insisted on introducing me to colleagues by repeating a couple of his favorite puns I had told him. He took considerable glee in relating those that would elicit groans of agony. You knew you were in trouble when that mischievous twinkle appeared in Roy's eyes, you never quite knew what was coming a joke, a pop quiz, a witty and searing commentary just that something was, and you'd better be on your toes.

not heavy, they help trap body heat and provide a protective layer against the cold.

In some areas of Madagascar, the lamba hearty has become the main element of clothing. For example, women in the Antakarana region in the far north wear the cloth not only as a shawl but also as a matching skirt, made by sewing together the two ends of the rectangular cloth to create a tube shape. They step into the tube, grasp two bunches of the excess cloth at the top edge, and tie a knot that is then tucked back into the newly formed waist of the skirt.

Many people use lamba hearty as aprons to protect their more expensive clothing while working. In the kitchen or around open cooking fires, for example, women wrap file proverb cloth around their hips and waist, tucking the two ends under the

1. Factory-printed cloth called lamba hoany carrying the saying "Gasy ka manja" (Madagascar/Malagasy is strong). Made by Rajsi Bros., Bombay, India. D No. 5020.

Lamba hoany is commonly called "proverb cloth" because of the proverbs or other verbal expressions printed near the bottom of the design. The cloths, made of cotton, rayon or a cotton rayon blend and measuring approximately 50" x 65" (127cm x 165cm), are factory produced in either India or locally in Madagascar and are worn by all the various peoples of the island republic.

This page, counterclockwise from top right:

2. Three Betsileo women from Madagascar's central highlands wear cloth at a lanonana, a ceremony preceding a reburial. Near Sandrandahy, 1993. Photo: Rebecca L Green.

A lamba hoany can be used in various ways as articles of clothing. As shown here with a similar kind of commercial cloth, it can be pulled over the head for warmth

3. A Betsileo woman serves drinks during an all-night watch over the body of a deceased male relative, Near Sandrandahy, 1993 Photo: Rebecca L. Green.

The woman has tied her lamba hoany around her waist, using it as an apron.

4. The author and an Antakarana friend fish for shrimp in a river. Near Bevary, 1993 Photo: Lisa Gezon.

For messy or wet activities, the cloth can be worn by itself, tied under the armpits.

5. A young Antakarana girl makes "ears" out of sticks and berries. Bevary, 1993 Photo: Rebecca L. Green

When sitting on the ground, girls and women drape lamba hoany over their knees for modesty's sake.

Opposite page:

Top: 6. Lamba hearty. Inscription: Feno tsy mikobana (Something that is full will not slosh around). Made by Rajsi Bros, Bombay, D No. 1025

The proverb or saying printed on a cloth does not necessarily relate to the imagery. Larnba hoany produced in India are characterized by their brilliant, saturated palettes and designs framed by decorative borders.

Bottom: 7. Lamba hoany Inscription: Fitia mifamaly mahatsara fihavanana (Gratitude makes friends [or relatives] happy) Made by Lucky Soraj, India, D.N.-218. top edge (Fig. 3). For particularly messy or wet jobs, a person might simply wrap a lamba hoany around the body under the armpits, as one would wear a towel after a shower. The cloth covers the torso and thighs, providing a certain level of modesty while allowing one to move more freely. In the northern part of the island, women wear the cloth this way while shrimp fishing in the region's many small rivers (Fig. 4). When not in use, a person may simply twist the cloth into a long rope and tie it around the waist like a belt.

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Lamba hoany can also be used as a sling in which to carry a baby on one's back. The ends may be tied at the chest in one knot (level with the armpits), in two knots (one level with the armpits and another at the sternum), or unknotted but with the ends twisted together tightly and then held in the hands or firmly clamped against one's side by the upper arm and elbow. A large baby, however, requires a blanket or a heavier cloth. Nevertheless, the lamba hoany may be used as a decorative outer layer that also keeps dirt off the relatively difficult-to-wash blanket.

People transport multiple objects by bundling them in the cloth. They also twist the length of a lamba hoany, coil it into a small doughnut shape, and place it on the head to create a base for carrying a heavy load. Brightly colored raffia baskets are often "closed" by lucking a lamba hoany around the edges, securing and concealing the contents while providing a decorative accent.

Malagasy use this same cloth as a floor covering or mat upon which to sit. Women, who generally wear skirts, can ensure that they are appropriately covered while sitting on the floor or on a low raffia cushion (pouf) by draping a lamba hoany over their knees (Fig. 5).

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Although the so-called national lamba fitafy (cloths worn primarily by the Merina and Betsileo peoples of the central highlands) are traditionally made of handwoven cotton or silk, a lamba hoany can serve as an acceptable substitute in a formal situation--as long as it is draped respectfully. It must be gathered together lengthwise and worn around the shoulders with the ends crossing over one shoulder, one end hanging down in front and the other down the back. Worn this way, it becomes a decorative accessory essential to one's highland Malagasy identity. If there are no chores to be done, no babies to be carried, no cold weather to bundle up against, and no need to dress in a formally wrapped scarf, many highland Malagasy wear their lamba hoany casually draped over one shoulder with the two long ends hanging down in the front and back.

Expressions of Identity

Lamba hoany are made in both Madagascar and India. Usually a cloth's origin is discernible at a glance. Those manufactured abroad in textile factories such as Rajsi Brothers or Rughani Brothers are often relatively thin, characterized by multiple color screens of bold red, green, blue, yellow, and black or very dark indigo (Figs. 6-8, 11, 12, 15, 23, 25, 26). Intended specifically for a Malagasy market, they combine imagery developed in India with a proverb or other short text in Malagasy. The Indian textiles, sought after for their perceived quality, brilliancy, and durability, have a patterned border on all four sides. They are designed to be cut at regular intervals (often indicated by a vertical row of a small scissors included in the repeating pattern), resulting in scarves of a standard size.

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Lamba hoany produced in Madagascar (Figs. 16, 19, 21, 24), at textile factories such as Cotona or Sotima, tend to be made of either relatively thin rayon or heavy cotton or a cotton-rayon blend. Their palette is limited and often less saturated with color, is darker or more subdued, and there is more open space in the design. In the heavier textiles, the designs frequently run continuously along the bolt of cloth, which can be cut to any length. Cloths that can be cut to variable lengths are more versatile and have a different pattern, since they are designed with top and bottom borders only. Ultimately, people choose lamba hoany on the basis of origin and the "messages" encapsulated therein either vita ambony (made abroad), with its suggestion of worldliness, or vita gasy (Malagasy made) and its association with Malagasy identity.

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The term vita gasy is complex. It is applied with great pride to items, traditions, and performances that are made, practiced, or enacted in Madagascar and nowhere else. Yet it is also used derisively to describe local products or traditions that are in competition with those of other countries. Malagasy peoples are acutely aware that they live in a severely economically disadvantaged nation. Madagascar was ranked the tenth poorest country in the world in 1991, with at least seventy percent of the population living below the poverty line according to an estimate in 1994 (World Factbook 2002). With raw materials and resources often unavailable, Madagascar cannot easily compete on the world market. Its products and services are frequently considered inferior to foreign imports.

Many Malagasy, therefore, use lamba hoany to express themselves, define their Malagasy identity (vita gasy) or a more worldly one (vita ambony), and to send messages--implied and specific--to others. If, as Mary Ellen Roach and Joanne Eicher note, "all aesthetic acts are acts of speaking" (1979:7), cloth and clothing in particular, by providing manipulable and versatile surfaces upon which aesthetic messages may be emblazoned, have the ability to supply information about a person's identity. Communicating through cloth, whether implicitly or explicitly, has a long history in highland Madagascar. For example, when the powerful eighteenth-century Merina king Andrianampoinimerina was expanding his empire, the Betsileo king Andriamanalina refused to submit to his authority. The former then sent his southern neighbor a cloth with a hole cut in its center. When Andriamanalina saw the cloth, he understood the depth of his isolation. The hole was his small kingdom; the surrounding cloth was the other Betsileo kingdoms whose rulers had already surrendered and sworn their allegiance to Andrianampoinimerina (see Brown 1978:127).

Lamba hoany act as a means of communication in a much more obvious way. Information is conveyed not only by the simple act of wearing this cloth (seen as a Malagasy practice) and in the choice of manufacturer (domestic or foreign), but also through the printed imagery, the text embedded into the design, and the contexts in which the cloth is worn.

The imagery of lamba hoany is wide ranging, and may or may not have an obvious connection to the proverbs depicted with them. Designs tend to be carefully symmetrical. They can be relatively abstract, as seen in the ubiquitous paisley swirls and grid or checkerboard designs. They can also portray plants, trees, vines, flowers, and other natural phenomena. Flowers are particularly prevalent, perhaps a harking back to an earlier source, the distinctive lambamena burial shroud. Lambamena are essential components of highland Malagasy reburial practices, which themselves are significant elements in highland performances of identity (see Green 1996, 1998, 2003). Moreover, the floral imagery that is commonly incorporated into the shroud plays a significant role in this expression of identity. The flowers are usually identified as poinsettia, which in the Malagasy language is Madagasikara, the local name for Madagascar.

Lamba hoany can also incorporate items from everyday life (chickens mid eggs, produce, lanterns, umbrellas) exotic elements (phoenixes), and expensive symbols of modem technology (trains, automobiles). They can refer to one's livelihood and suggest one's goals and ambitions, as by depictions of cattle (significant repositories of traditional wealth), cattle herders, and money. Some images are scenes that may reference a relatively complex situation-the celebration of a national holiday, for example--while others incorporate free-floating design elements that repeat across the textile, perhaps suggesting multiplicity or wealth.

The Texts

Perhaps the most important element of a lamba hoany is its text. Usually located near the bottom border, it communicates directly to the viewer through statements, declarations, or proverbs. Malagasy, especially elders, use proverbs in their daily lives, and they value eloquent rhetoric as a high art. Kabary, the flowery speeches given at all formal, ancestral occasions in the central highlands, are recognized as requiring great skill. Whenever the ancestors are invoked, a kabary is required. When a significant kabary is necessary (as at a fumudihana reburial), a family will chose its most expert speaker to perform on behalf of the entire group. Such performances are laden with proverbs and other colorful sayings and phrases, particularly concerning life, death, ancestors, and family; some of them are biblical. Many of these rhetorical expressions are also woven into lambamena, or burial shrouds.

Inscriptions for lamba hoany are not as restricted by convention as those for lambamena. They frequently take the form of advice or admonitions that do not necessarily connect with the cloth's imagery, particularly in cases where the manufacturer is in India. For example, Maharary ny manina, "Regret makes one sick," is placed below a floral pattern with an imitation crackle background that suggests batik. Feno tsy mikobana, or "Something that is full will not slosh around," is used on a cloth with a flamelike central flower oil a background of dots and speckled squares (Fig. 6). The words suggest that if one is complete in what one does or feels, one's life will be contained, under control. One cloth with brightly colored fish swimming among coral (Fig. 7) includes the saying Filia mifamaly mahatsara fihavanana, "Gratitude makes friends (or relatives) happy." A large phoenix within a central circle ringed by smaller phoenixes, and with a phoenix in each of the four corners, appears on a cloth that carries the inscription Fanahy tsara no maha olona, meaning "A good spirit or character makes the person" (Fig. 8).

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Many of the statements are spiritual. Tsy misy manana ny ampy fa sambatra izay mifanampy translates as "No one has enough in life, so blessed are those who help others." The saying Sambatra izay mpampi havana, or "Blessed is the one who makes friends," was chosen for a cloth with rectangular shapes within the floral border (Fig. 9). Tso-drano zava mahery, "Blessings are powerful," accompanies a floral pattern on a solid red background; it refers to a traditional form of blessing in which sacred water is sprayed or splashed over the blessing's recipient (Fig. 10). A similar sentiment is expressed by Fitiavana rano velona, "Sacred water is love," included on a cloth with a single large abstract flower on pointillist concentric circles. Maty amin'ny raha tiana, or "He died for us out of love," chosen for a cloth with an explosive floral motif on a polkadot background, is a direct reference to Christ (Fig. 11).

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Other expressions comment on the difficulty of life, as in %y moramora ny milady vola, or "It is not easy to obtain money," found on a cloth featuring a beach scene of a thatch house under a palm tree, with a pirogue floating nearby (Fig. 12). The problem of money is expressed in various ways on lamba hoany. One example depicts a large central circle containing a 5000-francs malgaches note (approximately $0.75 U.S.), with smaller versions in the four corners, all on a background of tiny 5000 frog notes (Fig. 13). This example does not include additional text, since file images already allude to the continual search for it. References to power and empowerment can also be found in floral-designed textiles with sayings such as Fikasana ny anao fa ny didy any tompo: "The intention is yours, but the command is the boss's" (Fig. 14).

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Love is always a popular topic. Tiako tsy ambelako ("I will not lose what I love") appears against an umbrella design (Fig. 15), and Azon'ny tanako tsy avelako ("I will not lose what I have in my hand") is printed on a stylized green floral pattern on yellow ground (Fig. 16). Izay tiana mitombo tarehy, which translates as "One who loves has a big character," is paired with a floral design that resembles a snowflake, while in another textile example with the saying Tsara roa satria tiako ianao, "Two is good because 1 love you," bright red and green kerosene lanterns float over a bright yellow background. The message is that being or having two--people, things, feelings, etc.--is necessary for a "couple," which is a desirable state (Fig. 17). Mandry amin'ny raha tiana tsy marary, "You will not get sick if you sleep with whom (or what) you love," is one of my favorites because of the associated image, a cowherd and his cows (Fig. 18). The juxtaposition of text and imagery was a cause for much joking among my Malagasy friends and informants.

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Lamba hoany can also commemorate important events. One cloth depicts Madagascar's Independence Day (June 26) by depicting a celebratory parade of young men and women of various ethnicities (differentiated through clothing and hairstyles) carrying torches and brightly colored paper lanterns illuminated by candles (Figs. 19, 20). Some events are specific to a particular ethnic group. A cloth observing the ceremonial renewal of the Antakarana royalty during a long and involved Tsangan-tsaigny, an event that takes place every seven years, is bordered on the top and bottom only and is printed continuously with the Antakarana symbol of a four-pointed star cradled within and above a quarter moon. important monuments are commemorated as well, as can be seen in the cloth Palais de la Reine ("Queen's Palace") depicting the Merina royal palace, Rova, which was destroyed by fire in 1995 (Figs. 21, 22). Finally, a strong ethnic and national identity is expressed in cloths imprinted with Madagascar tanin-drazako, "Madagascar my ancestral land," which shows a large horse bordered by many smaller horses (Fig. 23), and Gasy ka manja, "Malagasy is strong," a single snowflakelike flower on a checkerboard background punctuated by tiny dots. Interestingly, both cloths were made in India.

Some of the textiles enter the commercial range. With texts in French that relate more obviously to the images, some lamba hoany are increasingly explicit as advertising slogans accessible to a French-speaking tourist audience. Vacances a Taomasina (Fig. 24)is basically an ad for Taomasina, the second largest city on the island, as a vacation spot. The caption is accompanied by a central image of the train station; the four corners are anchored by images of vehicles that can take you to this wonderful locale--a train, a "bush taxi," a pousse-pousse or rickshaw, and a ship.

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Some of the more popular inscriptions may be illustrated by a wide variety of designs. For example, Samy mandeha samy mitady is an extremely popular saying that appears not only on lamba hoany but in songs by some of Madagascar's top groups. Literally it means "Everyone goes, everyone searches," but Hanitra Rasoanaivo, of the musical group Tarika, translates it more fully as "Each person goes on their chosen path and finds whatever they want in their life" (album liner notes for 'Tarika: D, 1999). This saying appears on numerous proverb cloths (Figs. 25, 26), accompanied by such diverse imagery as chickens, jalapeno peppers, umbrellas, abstract flourishes, and many other designs.

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Interestingly, simple misspellings or grammatical "mistakes" often appear in the messages. Malagasy friends and colleagues often told me these were intentional and even "necessary" for a lamba hoany cloth. It may well be that they are attributable to the fact that many of the most popular cloths are designed and manufactured abroad. Some "mistakes" may in fact be correct for the locality of manufacture. For example, the cloth proclaiming that Madagascar is one's ancestral land (Fig. 23), created by the Indian firm Lucky Soraj, uses the more international "Madagascar" rather than the local Malagasy word "Madagasikara."

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Raffia wall hangings woven by women and painted with motivational or proverbial sayings very similar to those on lamba hoany have become popular among both Malagasy and foreign tourists. The wall hangings seem to be relatively new and to be taking their cue from the proverb cloths, although I am unsure when exactly they began to be made or if they are based on another precedent. One example is Tsy misy manana mi ampy fa sambatra izay mifanapy, or "'No one has enough in life, so blessed are those who help others" (Fig. 27). Interestingly, although these hangings are made locally, they too can contain misspellings. In the example just given, the final word should ]lave been "mifanampy." Madagascar has a high literacy rate--eighty percent according to the World Fact-book 2002. Misspellings, therefore, are not easily explained away.

Ancestral Ceremonies

As mentioned earlier, Malagasy peoples wear lamba hoany in a number of contexts. They may choose a cloth with a certain text to convey a life philosophy or a specific message to a rival, friend, or family member. Lamba hoany play a particularly important role in establishing group identity and solidarity during ancestral ceremonies. For example, among line Merina and Betsileo these ritual occasions include zana-drazana, "children of the ancestors," which is the name for the family hosting an ancestral ceremony as well as for a particular performance during which men and women visually demonstrate family affiliation. Those who can afford it commission matching dresses or shirts to wear within the context of the formal hira gasy ("Malagasy singing"), a two day competition of folkoric singing for which the host family hires two theatrical troupes that provide piquant commentary on current social and political issues.

Embedded within the second day of the hira ,gasy, the zana-drazana is the most impressive performance and requires substantial expense; it involves pairs or groups of individuals wearing tailored suits with all the essential accessories (including purse, sunglasses, dress shoes, nylons, vest, hat) (Fig. 28). If a suit is beyond a participant's means, a simple tailored dress, skirt, or shirt is the preferred alternative (Fig. 29). At minimum, however, zana-drazana participants wrap lamba hoany around their waists over their clothing (Fig. 30). Lamba hoany are affordable and practical: participants will continue to use them after the event, since everyone eventually needs to buy a new one anyway. Moreover, if a pattern in bright colors is chosen, the cloths create a striking effect when worn by a group of people. It may not be possible, however, to obtain a lamba hoany of the same design for a large number of participants. In this case, cloths of the same color scheme but in two or perhaps three different patterns will suffice.

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In addition to the tailored outfits commissioned for the "official" zana-drazana performance, women who have the means may also purchase additional matching outfits that they will don during secondary, more spontaneous zana-drazana held at prearranged intervals during an ancestral ceremony (which may last four days). At a certain signal the family members and friends momentarily disappear, then reappear wearing their coordinated attire. They then dance together in a display of unity and group identity before returning to their work of facilitating the ceremony at hand. Clothing worn during these secondary zana-drazana, performed primarily by women, tends to be less formal. Because women must cook, serve meals, and continually tend to the ceremony and their guests, proverb cloths are not only more practical but more acceptable. That is a good thing, since most people can barely afford the suit for the main zana-drazana performance, let alone additional outfits for the second, or even third, informal performance that participants often strive to achieve.

Of course, lamba hearty are not the only cloths that Malagasy wear and use, but their versatility, practicality, and beauty make them extremely popular island-wide not only as clothing but as expressions of identity. In fact, the cover of the 1999 CD by the young musical group Tarika reflects the exploration of what it means--ethnically, politically, socially--to be Malagasy, a concern evident in all their work. The CD, titled Tarika: D (a play on dihy, which is pronounced like the letter D and means "dance"), illustrates a silhouette of the lead singer Rasoanaivo Hanitrarivo (Hanitra) embedded within a lamba hearty that contains the multilingual text "dihy: dance: danse." The lamba hearty, then, continues to be a means of signaling a distinct Malagasy identity, within Madagascar and abroad.

[This article was accepted for publication in April 2003.]

1. I conducted field research in Madagascar in 1990, 1992-93, and 1997 on ancestral arts and practices as well as on the use and manipulation of art in relation to identity. This article is based on a preliminary study of lamba hoany; further research in Madagascar and India concerning the origins and development of the cloth is necessary.

2. Today the finest examples are white or cream-colored, with embroidery or designs incorporated in the warp or weft floats. Women's scarves tend to be long and narrow (10" x 70" or longer), while men's tend to be relatively wide (50" or so). Wearing a lamba over one's best clothing, even if both are well worn or threadbare, means that one is dressed appropriately for any important or traditional occasion.

3. For example lamba akotofahana are fancy cloths, usually of mulberry silk, with supplemental weft floats, worn primarily by upper-class Merina who live in the central highlands Upper-class Betsileo, also a people of the central highlands, traditionally wear lamba arindrano, formal wraps that incorporate narrow black and white vertical stripes bordered by relatively wide stripes of brown or rust, Both the Merina and the Betsileo use the burial shrouds called lambamena (see Green 1996, 1998, 2000, 2001, 2003). Traditionally made of silk (although now created in a variety of materially, depending what a family can afford), lambamena tend to be woven in brilliant whites or jewel-like colors (if made of landikely mulberry silk) or natural creams, browns, and rusts (if of indigenous landibe silk). The shrouds are ornamented with imagery, in warp and weft floats, incorporated headwork, and wrapping, a technique previous ly called soumak, which involves wrapping mirrored pairs of supplemental thread across a cloth to create either a convex "chain stitch" or a concave pattern running across the cloth.

References cited

Brown, Mervyn. 1978. Madagascar Redisccovered: A History from Early Times to Independence. London: Damien Tunnacliffe.

Fee, Sarah. 2002. "Cloth in Motion: Madagascar's Textiles Through History," in Objects as Envoys: Cloth, Imagery, and Diplomacy in Madagascar, eds. Christine Mullen Kreamer and Sarah Fee Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press.

Green, Rebecca L. 1996. "Addressing and Redressing the Ancestors: Weaving, the Ancestors, and Reburials in Highland Madagascar." Ph.D. dissertation, Indiana University.

Green, Rebecca L. 1998. Once Is Never Enough: Textiles, Ancestors, and Reburials in Highland Madagascar. Bloomington: Indiana University Art Museum.

Green, Rebecca L. 2000. "Art, Care-giving and Ancestors: Gender Roles and Role Reversals in Highland Madagascar," in Taloha 13 (special issue Repense "la Femme Malgache": De nouvelles perspectives sur le genre a Madagascar/Rethinking "la Femme Malgache": New Views on Gender in Madagascar), pp. 317-46 Antananarivo: Revue de Institut de Civilisations--Musee d'Art et d'Archelogie.

Green, Rebecca L. 2001, "Ancestral Dreams: Re-Visiting the Past, Re-Living the Present, Re-Creating the Future," in Memory and Representation: Constructed Truths and Competing Realities, eds. Dona E. Ebe and Arthur G. Neal Bowling Green, OH: Popular Culture Press.

Green, Rebecca L. 2003. "Betsileo Textiles: Negotiating Identity Between the Living and the Dead," in Unwrapping a Little-Known Textile Tradition: The Field Museum's Madagascar Textile Collection, eds. Chapurukha M. Kusimba, Judy Odland, and Bennet Bronson. Los Angeles: UCLA Fowler Museum of Cultural History.

Roach, Mary Ellen, and Joanne Bubolz Eicher. 1979. "The Language of Personal Adornment," in The Fabrics of Culture: The Anthropology of Clothing and Adornment eds, Justine M. Cordwell and Ronald A. Schwarz, pp. 7 22. The Hague, New York, Paris: Mouton Publishers.

Tarika. 1999, Tarika: D. (compact disc liner notes), London: Green Linnet Records.

World Factbook 2002 www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ma.html

Rebecca L. Green is an associate professor and chair of art history at Bowling Green State University, and was recently the secretary-treasurer of the Arts Council of the African Studies Association. She has been conducting fieldwork in Madagascar since 1990 on textiles, funerary practices, divination arts, ancestral and contemporary arts, and the construction of identity through art.