Knowledge-Information-Service Era Changes in Work and Education and the Changing Role of the School Counselor in Career Education.

The Knowledge-Information-Service Era (KIS) is reflecting exponential changes in social, economic, government, career, education, work, and other life systems. Changes in work and workplace present a challenge to education and "educationplace" to provide concentrated attention to career development. Career education is an answer to the challenge. School counselors have a changing role in supporting the needs of students and workers for basic academic skills, productive work habits, work values, and means of relating paid and unpaid work as parts of total lifestyle.

Work and workplace are changing exponentially against the background of the Knowledge-Information-Service (KIS) Era. The KIS Era, with the American penchant for innovation and immediacy, is displaying and inducing change beyond prior expectations. Led in part by advances in electronic and scientific technology and spurred in part by motivations for economic growth and political outreach, rapid and wide-reaching changes are occurring in social, governmental, economic, and other life systems.

Trends toward difference are emerging in areas such as management and leadership structures and processes; communication styles, systems, substance, and tempo; social support, community, and family unit systems, roles, and results; self-in-relation needs and wants; globalization and national and international interdependence; exploration of the universe; and invention and intervention through bioenergy and biogenetics. Changes are also evident in institution-community-populace relationships and conventions; cultural and subcultural information, understandings, and behaviors; form and substance of instrumental and expressive behaviors and actions; means, intensity, and variance in the identification and pursuit of social issues; concerns about environmental, economic, social, and government sustainability; complexity, variety, and context of options in personal, occupational, educational, and social domains; and the significance and influence of science, mathematics, and technology relative to other fields.

Demographics are evolving toward an intermingled culture, with shifting differential and common static factors and dynamic characteristics of individuals and groups, along with consequent convergence and divergence of values, attitudes, behaviors, economic progress, career choice, occupational and educational accomplishment, lifestyle, and other areas. Power and influence are being redistributed cyclically worldwide and population-wide through instruments of wealth, violence, and knowledge. Certain issues are paramount, such as monitoring of the applications of invention; equitable access to knowledge, balance and integration of high-tech and high-touch factors; and the blend of people, processes, structures, and outcomes in change agency and agentry. An incremental shift is occurring toward the creation and dissemination of knowledge throughout KIS Era developments, and movement toward the Experiential Existential-Spiritual Era has already been initiated. This list of changes in the overall framework agains t which work and workplace are positioned can easily be extended (Wickwire, 1993, in press). Clearly, work and workplace are also experiencing new and different developments.

Change in Work and Workplace

Constellations of key words with key connotations can be highlighted to characterize some of the dramatic developments occurring in work and workplace during the transition to the new millennium (Wickwire, 1997). They include the following:

1. Quality and excellence, total quality management, value-added products and services, new and reformed management paradigms, customer expectations, customer satisfaction, change, immediacy, doing more with less, distributed work, mass customization, productivity, return on investment

2. Vision, mission, goals, objectives, delivery, results, outputs, outcomes

3. Learning organization, knowledge-based culture, intellectual capital, workers as assets, high performance, standards, core competencies, skills, multiskilling, multitasking, innovation, virtual organization

4. Lateral integration, teamwork, leadership, shared power and decision making, enabling, coordination, cooperation, repositioning of work, service

5. Skills in adaptability, flexibility, resiliency, employability, transferability, understanding and applying systems and resources, active learning, futures thinking, innovation, proactivity

6. Oral communication, listening, reading, written communication, mathematics, interpersonal, technical skills

7. Feedback, measurement, assessment, evaluation, accountability, continuous improvement, performance improvement, performance improvement interventions

8. Self as employer, self-sufficiency, self-management, portable skills, continuous lifelong learning, serial employment, "dejobbing," transitions, strategic reskilling, contingency work, life-work balance, consolidation of work and family, leisure, different forms ofcommunity and aloneness

The U.S. Department of Labor, through the Secretary's Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills (SCANS; 1991), presented the first broadly disseminated alert for many of these key words and connotations nearly a decade ago. SCANS identified characteristics of the high-performance workplace model in terms of strategy, production, hiring and human resources, job ladders, and training and suggested that training in broader skills would occur for everyone and that promotions in a limited internal market would occur on the basis of certified skills. SCANS further identified competencies needed for the workplace in terms of basic and thinking skills; personal qualities; interpersonal skills; and skills in handling resources, information, systems, and technology. Subsequently, surveys regarding desired work skills have tended to confirm the SCANS report.

A major anticipated work and workplace focus centers around the handling of technology and information. Skills of symbolic analysis, including putting things together in new and unique ways (problem solving), helping customers determine how their needs may be met (problem identifying), and brokering problem solving and problem identifying (Reich, 1991) are needed. Horizontal participative management, with learning capacity built into work systems and with sociodimensions such as opportunities for reflection, communication, collaboration, and inventiveness, is emerging in work and workplace (Wirth, 1992). The application of chaos theory to work systems is being considered (Wheatley, 1999). Efforts toward solving societal problems and sharing responsibility for the welfare of communities are beginning to take place and are moving toward the concepts of legacy for the future, unity, openness and equality of expression, and fulfillment for the whole person (Kiuchi, n.d.; Maynard & Mehrtens, 1994). Examination of the impact of hyperculture on people, ideas, values, and lifestyles is occurring (Bertman, 1998; Locke, 1998).

Numerous surveys and other research have been conducted to ascertain the availability of skills seen as necessary for work and workplace. For example, a recent survey identified a skills gap in the workplace (National Association of Manufacturers, 1998). Regarding job applicants, 88% of the responding manufacturers reported difficulties in finding qualified candidates in at least one job function, from unskilled to highly technical positions. Three of five reported that they typically reject between one half and all applicants as unqualified and that applicants have inadequate technical skills and lack relevant work experience. One third reported that applicants have inadequate reading or writing skills. Regarding incumbent nonexempt employees, responding manufacturers reported deficiencies in math skills, oral and written communications, ability to read technical documents and blueprints, and basic employability skills such as timeliness. Generally, "the nation needs to improve the skill levels of the workf orce" (Boesel & Fredlund, 1999, p. ix).

The need for attention to the wide and varied range of work and workplace for a differentiated workforce is clear; the need for synchrony among people, automation, and information is clear. Increased articulation and confluence between work and workplace, education and "educationplace," are essential, particularly in light of the increasing diversification and multiplication of opportunities in work and education.

Challenge for Education and Educationplace

Education and educationplace are moving in concert, reflecting, and responding to the challenge of the greater societal milieu and the work and workplace environment. Numerous events and trends can be noted, among them, distance education, community service, business--industry outreach, lifelong learning, informal and formal education, recognition of multiple intelligences and emotional intelligence, brain-based materials development and instructional delivery, parent involvement, training in technology, efforts toward high-tech high-touch balance, and egalitarian offerings.

Education and educationplace are taking into account the reconstruction of career, with attention to needs for information and experience such as those related to commitment to work, quality and productivity, creativity and innovation, teamwork, setting goals, planning and decision making, serial and mobile employment, transitions, self-sufficiency, self-management and entrepreneurism, contingent and temporary work, cybernetic developments, resources, skill portability, unpaid work, and productive uses of leisure.

One key emphasis in education and educationplace is the current and expected future concentration on competencies and skills. As in business, industry, government, and the professions, competency clusters, core competencies, and skills in sequential form applicable to general and specific desired-results packages are being identified and reinforced. These build on basic and advanced skills and competencies such as those identified by SCANS (1991), move toward capacity to perform and away from ranking by way of the normal curve, and reinforce capability as opposed to entitlement. Some institutions are issuing certificates of mastery in specific areas of competency and skill acquisition.

Aligned closely with competency modeling is the movement toward content and performance standards (Wickwire, 1996). This effort leads to the identification of applications, contextual learning and teaching, contextual performance measurement, and recycling targeted toward specific learning of content and demonstration of performance. Accountability is major in the process, and results are frequently recorded in a portfolio or other constructed report that can be used for purposes of education, training, and employment.

Another key current emphasis is the collaboration of education with the broader community, including business, industry, labor, government, and home. Effective collaboration provides for responsibility, authority, and accountability to be shared by all parties involved in the partnership effort (Clark, 1993; Hoyt & Wickwire, 1999).

These emphases in education and educationplace seem to be signals that career development needs are receiving broader recognition and are being implemented. Other signals include efforts to integrate academic and vocational education, include school-to-career programs with the development of performance assessment, develop learning organizations, explore personalized distance education, strengthen formal unpaid community service opportunities, adopt computerized career information and planning programs, infuse concepts and practices of career education into curriculum and classroom instruction, increase experiences such as job shadowing, and institute magnet schools and career academies.

It seems patently obvious that a proactive, recyclable, and revisable course of action is needed by the individual to meet the forces and factors that are changing life and work in America today. It seems patently obvious that, although both formal education and informal education have roles to play, institutions of education have a major responsibility to assist and support the individual in such study and action. It also seems patently obvious that decision makers in these institutions can choose to meet the challenges of changing life and work through providing programs and services to support career development (Hoyt & Wickwire, 1999).

Career Education: One Answer to the Challenge

One answer to the career development challenge posed by accelerating change in life and work is career education. Career education offers a systematic, sequential, integrated, coordinated opportunity for the connections of education, work, and career. Career education starts at an early age in the home, extends with formal and informal education throughout the lifetime, and occurs as a result of the collaboration of all parts of the community.

Career education is defined as

the total effort of public education and the community to help all individuals become familiar with the values of a work-oriented society, to integtate these values into their personal value systems, and to implement these values into their lives in such a way that work becomes possible, meaningful, and satisfying to each individual ... (Hoyt, Evans, Mackin, & Mangum, 1972, p. 15)

as "the totality of experiences through which one learns about and prepares to engage in work as part of her or his way of living" (Hoyt, 1975, p. 4), and as

an effort aimed at refocusing American education and the actions of the broader community in ways that will help individuals acquire and utilize the knowledge, skills, and attitudes necessary for each to make work a meaningful, productive, and satisfying part of his or her way of living. (Hoyt, 1977b, p. 5)

Career education includes seven major goals: to equip persons with general employability, adaptability, and promotability skills; to help persons in career awareness, exploration, and decision making; to relate education and work so that better choices of both can be made; to make work a meaningful part of total lifestyle; to reform education by infusing a careers emphasis in classrooms; to promote and implement private sector-education system partnerships; and to reduce bias and stereotyping and thus protect freedom of choice (Hoyt, 1987).

Desired learner outcomes, identified in terms of general employability, adaptability, and promotability skills, include basic academics; productive work habits; personally meaningful work values; basic understanding and appreciation of private enterprise; understanding of self and available educational and occupational opportunities; career decision making; job seeking, finding, getting, and holding; productive use of leisure time; reduction of bias and stereotyping and respect for full freedom of career choice for all persons; and humanizing the workplace for oneself (Hoyt, 1981). These goals and desired learner outcomes are certainly appropriate in relation to the needs for career development as they relate to current changes in life and work.

Career education models have been developed and implemented for different settings (Hoyt, 1981). The basic conceptual content sequence includes career awareness, career exploration, career planning and decision making, career preparation, career entry, career maintenance, and career progression (Woal, 1994). Delivery of this content can be personalized and recycled as appropriate and necessary for individual career development needs. In the planning, delivery, and evaluation of career education in kindergarten though Grade 12, management, pupil services, instruction, and classified components, as well as agents outside of the school system, are collaboratively involved in a team approach. Throughout the lifetime, all parts of the community are involved.

School counselors, who are key personnel in the kindergarten through Grade 12 career education team (Hoyt, 1977a, 1977c, 1981; Wickwire, 1992), can contribute in large degree to support student career development needs in a society with increasingly close relationships of education and work.

The Changing Role of the School Counselor in Career Education

The emerging information society calls for increasingly close relationships between education and work (National Center on Education and the Economy [NCEE], 1990). If these relationships are to be effective, four growing needs of all school leavers must be recognized. These include (a) the need to plan for postsecondary career-oriented education; (b) the need to acquire general employability, adaptability, and promotability skills to enable occupational changes during adulthood; (c) the need to emphasize the importance of work values; and (d) the need to plan ways of engaging in both paid and unpaid work as part of total career development.

The contention is that today's school counselors can make important contributions toward meeting these needs if they attempt to do so in the context of career education. The basis for each of these student needs is presented in the following discussion.

Need for Postsecondary Career-Oriented Education

Approximately 8 million (30%) of the 26.3 million new jobs expected during 1994-2005 will require a bachelor's degree ("OCChart: Projected Change," 1994). When both new and replacement job openings are considered, 23.3% of them are predicted to require at least a 4-year college degree ("OCChart: Occupations," 1995-1996). Yet, 77% of high school seniors expect to receive the bachelor's degree (Olson, 1996), and 67% of the 1997 high school graduates were enrolled in college in the fall of 1997 (U.S. Department of Labor, 1998). On the basis of these projections, an annual surplus of approximately 300,000 graduates from 4-year colleges is predicted for the number of jobs available during 1994-2005 (Shelley, 1996).

Jobs requiring postsecondary education at a level below the baccalaureate will grow by 34%, faster than for any other category of education ("OCChart: Projected Change," 1994). Helping persons consider and prepare themselves to fill such jobs is a major challenge facing today's educators, and especially today's school counselors. The need to do so is easily illustrated by noting that during 1992-2005, more than 20 million new jobs requiring only a few weeks of on-the-job training are anticipated ("OCChart: Occupations," 1995-1996). Most of these are expected to be low-level, dead-end jobs with little job security and few worker benefits or opportunities for advancement.

School counselors face major challenges to help as many students as possible find ways to secure some other form of postsecondary education. On the basis of the data for 4-year college students previously cited, it does not seem reasonable to suggest increases in the percentages of 4-year college degree candidates. The most logical alternative is to concentrate on helping more high school leavers consider the educational opportunities that are available at the postsecondary level but that are not aimed at earning a baccalaureate degree. This is the largest and most significant challenge for change facing today's school counselors.

The biggest obstacle to meeting this goal is the strong societal bias favoring the 4-year college over other postsecondary education. The "Education Pays" slogan is often supported by data indicating that a straight-line relationship exists between the amount of education and average financial earnings (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1995). Those individuals who actively promote that point of view are disregarding the fact that a sizeable range exists among salaries within each group. For example, the Bureau of Labor Statistics has produced statistics showing that 1 in 6 full-time salaried workers aged 25 and without the bachelor's degree earns $700 or more per week--close to the median for all workers with the 4-year degree (Cosca, 1994-1995). If the goal is education as preparation for paid employment, the 4-year college degree is best thought of as one among several kinds of postsecondary opportunities.

This societal bias is significant, in part, because it is held by so many people, including students, parents, and educators. This is an excellent example of a problem for which career education is a viable approach. Career education programs, for example, include a major emphasis on helping students see how the academic skills they are learning are routinely used by a variety of workers. By asking persons from a wide range of occupations to identify such workers, it is relatively easy to demonstrate that the importance of basic academic skills is not reserved for those with 4-year college degrees. Students cannot be expected to rid themselves of this bias until and unless active campaigns are aimed at helping both educators and parents do so.

Such campaigns will aim to help all paid workers participating in the elementary school career-awareness program emphasize the need of pupils to learn both the basic academic skills and the work habits that will lead to increased productivity. Although elementary school students, their parents, and their teachers can make progress in eliminating this societal bias, unless this aspect of career education is consciously aimed at influencing both teachers and parents, efforts to help pupils reduce their bias toward the 4-year college are unlikely to work. The problem is especially difficult for the thousands of parents who subscribed to insurance guaranteeing financing for 4-year college for their children. Ridding such parents of the bias that the 4-year college degree leads to the highest paid and most secure jobs is not an easy task. The best that can be done is to collect and disseminate factual information regarding relationships between education and income. If such information is analyzed and reported cor rectly, the importance of viewing such figures as they reflect income ranges should become evident.

Some people decide to enroll in a 4-year college for reasons that extend far beyond that of education as preparation for work. To the extent that is true, it would be wrong to contend that these people are biased in favor of 4-year college over other postsecondary educational opportunities available. Many individuals place high value on a general liberal arts education. Others value the socialization skills acquired by 4-year college students, and they especially value the friendships that are made during that period. Still others value the thinking skills associated with a liberal arts education. Many people strongly emphasize the capacity of the 4-year liberal arts college to help students shape their personal value systems. In short, many parents value the 4-year college, in a broad sense, as preparation for living and not just as preparation for making a living. Career education seeks to include preparation for making a living as one goal of 4-year colleges, not as the only or most important goal. The sc hool counselor can be a key contributor in reaching this goal and in keeping it in proper perspective.

Need to Acquire General Employability, Adaptability, and Promotability Skills

As the occupational society participates in the Information Age, it will become more and more important for workers to be able to think about what they are doing and to make decisions aimed at performing their job duties successfully (Marshall & Tucker, 1992). Necessary thinking skills will include deciding how to use basic academic skills to perform job functions, how to use productive work habits consistently, and how to apply career decision-making skills. One of the key goals of today's school counselors must be assisting classroom teachers in their attempts to help pupils acquire general employability, adaptability, and promotability skills useful in any occupation found in the emerging high-tech society (SCANS, 1991).

This can be done in elementary school classrooms, to some degree, through career-awareness experiences involving presentations by private sector persons, coupled with field trips by elementary and middle school students to sites within the occupational society. These kinds of activities, although helpful, are far from being sufficient if the goal is to equip all students with general employability skills.

Instead, the major kinds of activity needed in career education are oriented around those activities aimed at considering the classroom to be a workplace and both teachers and pupils as workers. Most career education advocates seem to endorse the definition of work found in the first U.S. Office of Education monograph on career education, which was this: "Work is conscious effort, other than that whose prime purpose is either coping or relaxation, aimed at providing benefits to oneself and/or to oneself and others" (Hoyt, 1975, p. 3). According to this definition, the word work is not limited to paid employment. By including unpaid as well as paid activities as work, the concept of the classroom as a workplace becomes clearly defensible.

The major reason this is important is that it provides a rationale and a vehicle for helping kindergarten to Grade 12 teachers change their behavior in ways aimed at increasing classroom productivity. Of all the possible ways of motivating teachers to participate in career education, none is likely to be as effective as convincing teachers that, if they use a "classroom-as-a-workplace" approach, pupils are likely to increase the amount they learn. Furthermore, unless and until classroom teachers change their behavior, it is highly doubtful that anything resembling education reform will take place.

Professional school counselors are among the best equipped of all educators to help classroom teachers adopt and implement this approach. The teaching-- learning process can be thought of as including two equally valuable components: (a) transmitting substantive material to pupils and (b) motivating pupils to learn that material. By helping teachers to change in both of these ways, counselors can make major contributions to education reform.

Need to Emphasize Importance of Work Values

The days when most persons made and maintained one occupational choice during their entire working lives are past. Instead, more and more workers are finding themselves displaced from their current occupations because of changes made in their employment organizations. Many such workers are unsuccessful in their attempts to find new employment calling for the same job skills. Instead, it is becoming more and more necessary for such persons to acquire other sets of specific occupational skills for success in other occupations (Drucker, 1994).

Some persons interpret this to mean that, when persons change occupations, they are, in effect, changing careers. Most career education advocates would reject that interpretation. Instead, they would look for the kinds of work values found in both the old and the new occupations. To the extent that similar work values are present, the transition from one occupation to another becomes easier and more effective.

The term work values is interpreted by most career education advocates to mean the set of values that makes a particular kind of work seem important and worthwhile to the individual--reasons why the individual devotes attention and energies to the work tasks in which he or she engages. Development of work values is best thought of as part of the maturation process for each person. People express their work values to others in many ways, sometimes through words and sometimes through actions. In any event, such values are typically stated as a set of reasons for working, expressed in terms of the nature of one's occupation and in terms of the benefits to the individual.

Examples of work values stated as reasons for wanting to work include the following:

* Work is a way for the individual to explain to others who he or she is.

* Work is a way for the individual to recognize why it is important he or she exists.

* Work is a way for the individual to have his or her importance recognized by others.

* Work is a way for the individual to finance his or her lifestyle.

* Work is a way for the individual to know that he or she is contributing to society.

* Work is a way for the individual to enjoy his or her leisure time.

* Work is a way for the individual to be an active lifetime learner.

* Work is a way for the individual to acquire new friends and acquaintances.

* Work is a way for the individual to know he or she has done something.

* Work is a way for the individual to demonstrate that he or she is an expert in something.

Many other examples of work values could easily be added, but even these few suffice to illustrate the basic meaning of the term work values as it is used in career education. Professional school counselors are the best qualified persons in many kindergarten through Grade 12 settings to help both teachers and pupils become concerned about their work values as they relate to career choices.

Need to Plan for Both Paid and Unpaid Work

There seems to be general agreement that America's ability to compete successfully in the emerging high-tech information society will depend in large part on the ability to educate and employ high-skills workers (NCEE, 1990). Much attention has been given to the fact that, whereas jobs requiring some form of postsecondary education are growing at a faster rate than jobs that do not, the actual numbers of new jobs requiring a few weeks of on-the-job training will be substantially greater than the total for all jobs requiring some form of postsecondary education ("OCChart: Occupations," 1995-1996). Apparently, the emerging high-tech society is predicted to provide more jobs for low-skills workers than for high-skills workers. Career education for today's kindergarten to Grade 12 pupils must take this into account. This will be especially true for professional school counselors who participate in career education.

Many workers in jobs requiring only short-term, on-the-job training may not clearly relate their jobs to many of the work values already identified in this article. Instead, many may view their paid jobs primarily as a way of earning money. Whatever can be done to help them adopt additional work values that they can use in thinking about the importance of their work in paid employment is likely to be helpful in terms of increasing worker productivity in their paid jobs. This, however, will not be an easy route to follow.

Instead, many will find unpaid work opportunities in the broader community the most rewarding ways to feel valued and needed by other community members as well as by themselves. If teachers and school counselors are to help all youth engage in activities leading to increased feelings of self-worth, community-based opportunities should become an important part of the total career education program from kindergarten through Grade 12. School counselors can and should take the lead in helping to make this happen.

Concluding Remarks

The United States is faced with the need to compete for high-skills workers with other nations in the international marketplace. The need for workers with (a) basic academic skills, (b) productive work habits, (c) clearly developed work values, and (d) adequate means of relating paid and unpaid work as parts of total lifestyle is clear. The only major call for education reform in the last 30 years clearly dedicated to meeting these needs is career education.

The operational philosophy and the short-term and long-term goals of career education are essentially the same as those for the professional school counselor movement. It is time for professional school counselors nationwide to assume leadership roles in organizing and conducting career education programs for all pupils from kindergarten through Grade 12. This leadership by school counselors will eventually help to create the kinds of employees in the high-skills workplace that are necessary for America to compete and succeed in the international marketplace.

Kenneth B. Hoyt is a University Distinguished Professor in the Department of Counseling and Educational Psychology at Kansas State University, Manhattan. Pat Nellor Wickwire is president of the American Association for Career Education in Hermosa Beach, California. Correspondence regarding this article should be sent to Kenneth B. Hoyt, Bluemont Hall, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506-5312 (e-mail: [e-mail].)

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