Knowledge conversion is the key to success: businesses that know how to convert information into knowledge will be more successful than those that do not. The same is true for information technology companies.Any business can provide information, but those that can convert that information to knowledge will be most successful predicted Stan STAN Stanchion STAN Stärke- und Ausrüstungsnachweis (German) Stan Standard Man (human patient simulator) STAN SEMCIP Technical Assistance Network STAN System Trace Audit Number STAN Star Trek Area Network Davis and Jim Botkin Botkin (Russian: Боткин), or Botkina (feminine; Боткина), is a common Russian or Scottish surname, which may refer to:
A snapshot (1) A saved copy of memory including the contents of all memory bytes, hardware registers and status indicators. It is periodically taken in order to restore the system in the event of failure. (2) A saved copy of a file before it is updated. of information technology (IT) companies listed in 2001 by Standard & Poor's Register support Davis and Botkin's prediction. In addition, there is convincing evidence that, over time, the strategic direction of knowledge conversion has been more successful than that of hardware and storage systems. So much so that today a business' ability to convert information into knowledge may mean the difference between that business' success and failure. Information Science in the 20th Century The term "information industry" is a 20th-century reference to the commodification Commodification (or commoditization) is the transformation of what is normally a non-commodity into a commodity, or, in other words, to assign value. As the word commodity has distinct meanings in business and in Marxist theory, commodification of data and is thought to have been initiated by Vannevar (jargon) vannevar - /van'*-var/ A bogus technological prediction or a foredoomed engineering concept, especially one that fails by implicitly assuming that technologies develop linearly, incrementally, and in isolation from one another when in fact the learning curve tends to be Bush's article, "As We May Think," published by The Atlantic magazine in 1945. As director of the Office of Scientific Research and Development The Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD) was an agency of the United States federal government created to coordinate scientific research for military purposes during World War II. during World War II, Bush urged all who would listen to recognize the store of information that science had amassed up to and during the war. He also emphasized the need to think about how best to organize scientific information and use it for purposes other than destruction. His foresight (graphics, tool) Foresight - A software product from Nu Thena providing graphical modelling tools for high level system design and simulation. and call for attention to the information wealth of industrialized in·dus·tri·al·ize v. in·dus·tri·al·ized, in·dus·tri·al·iz·ing, in·dus·tri·al·iz·es v.tr. 1. To develop industry in (a country or society, for example). 2. society subsequently engaged several social and natural science disciplines to expand the ways in which data about all parts of life and human activities were recorded, stored, retrieved, and used. Though not many companies immediately took up Bush's call, few industry leaders today would argue with the dominance of the information industry in the marketplace. The shifting descriptions and models for those members of the infromation industry present a snapshot of data collected and compared across time for particular companies that rose to the challenge of providing information services See Information Systems. . A review of these information industry entities should offer at least a partial explanation as to why some succeeded while others failed in a time of unprecedented economic growth. Among the disciplines most immediately responsive to Bush's suggestions were the library and information sciences. Among those coming into the information science community from industry, however, were those with physics, mathematics, economics, and communication technology training. While they often did not share the traditional library education approach to information collection, organization, storage, and retrieval, they very much understood the value of information as it served specific markets and met the needs of consumers. U.S. sociologist Daniel Daniel, book of the Bible Daniel, book of the Bible. It combines "court" tales, perhaps originating from the 6th cent. B.C., and a series of apocalyptic visions arising from the time of the Maccabean emergency (167–164 B.C. Bell's research during the 1960s led him to speculate that a majority of the U.S. workforce at that time was engaged in information work and that information was an essential commodity for the second half of the century. What the Experts Say Critics of information's emergence as a product of industry include Mark Poster, who charged in his 1990 book, The Mode of Information, that Bell's studies undermined the value of free access to information as a public good for society. "Just when the merger of mass communications and the computer makes possible rapid, universal distribution of information, and therefore in principle extends the democratization de·moc·ra·tize tr.v. de·moc·ra·tized, de·moc·ra·tiz·ing, de·moc·ra·tiz·es To make democratic. de·moc of knowledge ... Bell sees fit to authorize To empower another with the legal right to perform an action. The Constitution authorizes Congress to regulate interstate commerce. authorize v. to officially empower someone to act. (See: authority) the restriction of information to those who can foot the bill," wrote Poster. Harold Fromm, in his 1991 book, Academic Capitalism & Liberal Value, noted: "The marketplace of ideas This article is about the concept. For the public radio show and podcast, see The Marketplace of Ideas (radio program). The "marketplace of ideas" is a rationale for freedom of expression based on an analogy to the economic concept of a free market. , once only a metaphor, has literally become just that, a system of commodities ... where information commands a price and is traded like pork-belly futures." Irving Horowitz decried this view in his 1991 book Communicating Ideas. Horowitz claimed that Poster seemed to ignore the fact that information was never free and that "knowledge is a hard-earned value." F. W. Lancaster dismisses the commodities argument, writing in the 1980 proceedings of The Role of the Library in an Electronic Society that "the electronic networks developed in the past 20 years have not created an information elite but have improved access to information for all segments of society." Still others warn that too often there seems to be a melding of information and knowledge and that more information is not necessarily more knowledge. Political theorist the·o·rist n. One who theorizes; a theoretician. theorist a person who forms theories or who specializes in the theory of a particular subject. See also: Ideas, Learning Noun 1. Langdon Winner Langdon Winner is Professor of Political Science in the Department of Science and Technology Studies at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York since 1990. In 1973, Winner graduated with a Ph.D. from the University of California, Berkeley. wrote in his 1986 Questioning Technology article, "Mythinformation," that there is a belief that "speed conquers quantity" and so people work toward information management as the "telos of modern society, its greatest mission." The Information Industry The information industry is said to consist of those enterprises that provide value-added data. Davis and Botkin in their 1994 Harvard Press Review article characterize the early information industry's focus as one concerned most with four kinds of data--numbers, words, sounds, and images. It was the industry's processing, storage, and manipulation of data that grew into a valuable information industry. Examples include computer-generated reservations systems along with yield management and mapping systems. Davis and Botkin traced the evolution of businesses that generated information as an adjunct adjunct (aj´ungkt), n a drug or other substance that serves a supplemental purpose in therapy. adjunct to their core business endeavor but then found that this byproduct by·prod·uct or by-prod·uct n. 1. Something produced in the making of something else. 2. A secondary result; a side effect. Noun 1. information actually became more important than the original business product. This development was possible because of two factors: technological advances and behavior shifts moved society generally from data users to information consumers, spurring the information industry's growth. Richard Weiner's 1996 Dictionary of Media & Communications identifies six categories within the information industry. The categories that might be thought of as an interconnected continuum Continuum (pl. -tinua or -tinuums) can refer to:
* information brokers who are the researchers and database services providers * information processors who do the searching, gathering, recording, and providing of information records * information providers who are the conduit systems Con´duit sys´tem 1. (Elec.) A system of electric traction, esp. for light railways, in which the actuating current passes along a wire or rail laid in an underground conduit, from which the current is "picked up" by a plow or other that deliver data * information systems that are the methods for storage and retrieval * information services that are those providers of storage and retrieval systems * information technology that acquires, processes, stores, and disseminates data via a combination of computer and telecommunication telecommunication Communication between parties at a distance from one another. Modern telecommunication systems—capable of transmitting telephone, fax, data, radio, or television signals—can transmit large volumes of information over long distances. devices The Information Industry Association was founded in 1968 and grew to represent more than 500 companies that worked in some aspect of creation, distribution, and use of information products, services, and technology. Some 25 years later, the 1996 Standard & Poor's Register index listed fewer than 75 companies under the heading "Information Retrieval information retrieval Recovery of information, especially in a database stored in a computer. Two main approaches are matching words in the query against the database index (keyword searching) and traversing the database using hypertext or hypermedia links. Services," but by 2001 that list had grown fourfold fourfold Adjective 1. having four times as many or as much 2. composed of four parts Adverb by four times as many or as much Adj. 1. . Similarly, the heading "Data Preparation and Processing Services" listed fewer than 200 corporations in the 1996 index, while just five years later there were hundreds on the list. Though the Register has nine classifications for the computer industry, including the two just mentioned, the category with the longest list, about 900, is of those companies that make "Prepackaged pre·pack·age tr.v. pre·pack·aged, pre·pack·ag·ing, pre·pack·ag·es To wrap or package (a product) before marketing. Adj. 1. Software." Testing the Prediction The research tested Davis and Botkin's prediction during a tumultuous period in the industry's expansion and contraction contraction, in physics contraction, in physics: see expansion. contraction, in grammar contraction, in writing: see abbreviation. contraction - reduction , growth, and shrinkage Shrinkage The amount by which inventory on hand is shorter than the amount of inventory recorded. Notes: The missing inventory could be due to theft, damage, or book keeping errors. . While it may seem like a brief interlude interlude, development in the late 15th cent. of the English medieval morality play. Played between the acts of a long play, the interlude, treating intellectual rather than moral topics, often contained elements of satire or farce. between prediction and retrospection ret·ro·spect n. A review, survey, or contemplation of things in the past. v. ret·ro·spect·ed, ret·ro·spect·ing, ret·ro·spects v.intr. 1. To contemplate the past. 2. to sideline sideline See on the sidelines. observers, the winners and losers in this industry have either gained or suffered on a huge scale. Research Question The information industry has experienced tremendous turnover. However, the question is whether those companies that provided knowledge--that is, converted information--were more successful than those that provided conduit conduit /con·du·it/ (kon´doo-it) channel. ileal conduit the surgical anastomosis of the ureters to one end of a detached segment of ileum, the other end being used to form a stoma on the services and hardware. An initial dataset for such an examination was found by comparing those companies profiled at the beginning and end of the 1990s. During a 10-year period, the International Directory of Company Histories listed and reported on about 220 companies identified as IT corporations. Of the 23 selected information industry companies featured in the 1991 Directory, only 15 can be found among the 2001 Standard and Poor's Noun 1. Standard and Poor's - a broadly based stock market index Standard and Poor's Index Register Corporations. This group of 15 serves the purposes of the research question. Though this selection is only a snapshot, it is a useful sample for reviewing the successes and failures as indicative of the industry as a whole. Findings Those information industries featured in the 1991 International Directory of Company Histories that were still in existence at the end of the century and listed in the 2001 Standard & Poor's are displayed in table 1 on page 55. Results Unisys Corp. is the oldest among these companies and Compaq Computer Corp. is the youngest. IBM (International Business Machines Corporation, Armonk, NY, www.ibm.com) The world's largest computer company. IBM's product lines include the S/390 mainframes (zSeries), AS/400 midrange business systems (iSeries), RS/6000 workstations and servers (pSeries), Intel-based servers (xSeries) employed the largest number in both 1991 and 2001. It had more than twice the employees of its nearest competitors, Fujitsu in 1991 and EDS (Electronic Data Systems, Plano, TX, www.eds.com) Founded in 1962 by H. Ross Perot (independent candidate for the President of the U.S. in 1992), EDS is the largest outsourcing and data processing services organization in the country. in 2001. EDS, however, experienced the largest employment growth during the 10-year interval, growing from 60,000 to 130,000. IBM had the highest sales figures sales figures npl → cifras fpl de ventas in 1991 and 2001. It reported $62.71 billion, compared to Fujitsu's $17.74 billion and Xerox's $17.64 billion in 1991. In 2001, IBM reported $87.55 billion in sales, compared to Hewlett-Packard's $42.40 billion. But Compaq had the largest sales growth during the 10-year period with a $35.65 billion increase. Amstrad reported the fewest employees in 1991 and Cray (Cray, Inc., Seattle, WA, www.cray.com) A supercomputer manufacturer founded in 1972 as Cray Research, Inc., by Seymour Cray, a leading designer of large-scale computers at Control Data. In 1976, it shipped its first computer to Los Alamos National Laboratory. the fewest in 2001. Cray also reported the lowest sales figures among this group of companies for both 1991 and 2001. Nearly all the companies identified themselves for the U.S. Department of Labor's Standard Industrial Classifications (SIC) as primarily computer equipment manufacturers (SIC 3571, 3572, 3575, 3577, 3578, and 3579) and/or peripheral equipment (5045). Clearly, the computer design and manufacturing business has been a successful industry over the long haul Long distance. Long haul implies traversing a state or a country. Contrast with short haul. . In addition, more than half of these companies also categorized cat·e·go·rize tr.v. cat·e·go·rized, cat·e·go·riz·ing, cat·e·go·riz·es To put into a category or categories; classify. cat themselves as consultants or software solution designers (SIC 7372, 7373, 7374 and 7379). Conclusions Weiner's list of IT categories includes information brokers, processors, and providers, as well as systems architects, systems providers, and device technology. Among these categories, those most likely to support customers' needs for converting their own business information product to knowledge are systems architects and system providers. The combination of designing systems and providing the solution components that match particular client needs would seem to be the closest combination of discrete categorie. This group, then, may be seen as the one offering greater value-added services A value-added service (VAS) is a telecommunications industry term for non-core services or, in short, all services beyond standard voice calls and fax transmissions. for its customers. After reviewing tables l and 2, it seems that those companies that saw themselves as offering these two components (systems design and solution components) were successful in the study period. But no matter what the size of the company among those found on this list, either one or the other categories of providing information conversion to knowledge can be seen as the standout characteristic of that organization. In each measure of success among the companies described, those that design clients' systems and those that provide solutions for customers' information organization, storage, and retrieval needs are those companies reaping financial growth. Predictions of success for these companies seem to have been borne out by the market. Those companies that moved from simply providing smarter machines and computers to the more complicated elements of systems design have flourished. EDS, Compaq, and IBM are each models of success in their own way, but they all share the characteristics of system designers and providers. It seems that Davis and Botkin were right--those companies that facilitated the converting of information to knowledge did better than those that only provided hardware and information conduit services.
Table: 1 Measure of Information Industry Company Success, 1991-2001
1991 2001 Difference
Company Founded Employees Employees
Amdahl Corp. 1970 8,700 13,000 +4,300
Amstrad PLC 1968 1,200 99 -(1,101)
Apple 1976 14,517 9,736 -(4,781)
Computer
Inc.
Automatic 1949 19,000 29,000 +10,000
Data
Processing Inc.
Canon Inc. 1937 44,401 72,280 +27,879
Compaq 1982 10,000 69,200 +59,200
Computer
Corp.
Cray Research 1972 4,700 64 (4,636)
Electronic Data 1962 60,000 130,000 +70,000
Systems Corp.
(EDS)
Fujitsu Ltd. 1935 114,010 48,225 -(65,785)
Hewlett- 1938 95,000 112,000 +17,000
Packard
International 1910 383,200 291,067 -(92,133)
Business
Machines
(IBM)
NCR Corp. 1900 56,000 32,500 -(23,500)
Pitney Bowes 1920 31,404 30,628 -(776)
Inc.
Unisys Corp. 1886 80,000 35,800 -(44,200)
Xerox Corp. 1961 111,400 85,2000 -(26,200)
Company 1991 Sales 2001 Sales Sales
(in billions) (in billions) Difference
(in billions)
Amdahl Corp. $2.10 $2.13 +$0.03
Amstrad PLC $0.93 $0.07 -($0.86)
Apple $5.28 $6.13 +$0.85
Computer
Inc.
Automatic $1.70 $5.54 +$3.84
Data
Processing Inc.
Canon Inc. $9.39 $24.36 +$14.97
Compaq $2.88 $38.53 +$35.65
Computer
Corp.
Cray Research $0.57 Less than $.01 NA
Electronic Data $5.47 $18.53 +$13.06
Systems Corp.
(EDS)
Fujitsu Ltd. $17.74 NA NA
Hewlett- $11.90 $42.40 +$30.50
Packard
International $62.71 $87.55 +$24.84
Business
Machines
(IBM)
NCR Corp. $5.96 $6.20 +$0.24
Pitney Bowes $2.88 $4.43 $1.55
Inc.
Unisys Corp. $10.10 $7.54 ($2.56)
Xerox Corp. $17.64 $19.23 +$1.59
Company Description
Amdahl Corp. Data storage
subsystems &
application
software
development
Amstrad PLC Designer/
manufacturer
of telecom
products
Apple Personal
Computer computer
Inc. systems
Automatic Financial data
Data processing
Processing Inc. services
Canon Inc. Business
machines
Compaq Manufacture
Computer & distribute
Corp computers
Cray Research Computer
systems
Electronic Data IT services
Systems Corp.
(EDS)
Fujitsu Ltd. Manufacturer
of computer &
communication
equipment
Hewlett- Measurement
Packard & computatior
products
International Information
Business processing
Machines products &
(IBM) systems
NCR Corp. Data ware-
house systems
Pitney Bowes Mailing &
Inc. shipping
products
Unisys Corp. Electronic
business
systems
integration
Xerox Corp. Copiers &
computer-
related
equipment
Table 2: U.S. Department of Labor Standard
Industrial Classifications (SIC)
SIC SIC SIC
Descriptions Company 3571 3752 3575
Data storage Amdahl Corp.
subsystems &
application software
development X X
designer/manufacturer Amstrad PLC
of telecomm products X X X
Personal computer Apple Computer Inc.
systems X
Financial data Processing Inc.
processing services
Business machines Canon Inc.
Manufacture & Compaq
distribute computers Computer Corp. X
Computer systems Cray Research
IT services Electronic Data
Systems Corp. (EDS)
Manufacturer Fujitsu Ltd.
of computer &
communication
equipment X X
Measurement & Hewlett- Packard
computation products X
Information processing International
products & systems Business
Machines (IBM) X
Data warehouse NCR Corp.
systems X
Mailing & shipping Pitney Bowes
products Inc. X
Electronic business Unisys Corp.
systems integration X X X
Copiers & computer- Xerox Corp.
related equipment
SIC SIC SIC
Descriptions Company 3577 3578 3579
Data storage Amdahl Corp.
subsystems &
application software
development X
designer/manufacturer Amstrad PLC
of telecomm products X
Personal computer Apple Computer Inc.
systems
Financial data Processing Inc.
processing services
Business machines Canon Inc. X
Manufacture & Compaq
distribute computers Computer Corp.
Computer systems Cray Research
IT services Electronic Data
Systems Corp. (EDS)
Manufacturer Fujitsu Ltd.
of computer &
communication
equipment
Measurement & Hewlett- Packard
computation products X
Information processing International
products & systems Business
Machines (IBM) X
Data warehouse NCR Corp.
systems X X
Mailing & shipping Pitney Bowes
products Inc. X
Electronic business Unisys Corp.
systems integration X X X
Copiers & computer- Xerox Corp.
related equipment X X X
SIC SIC SIC
Descriptions Company 3661 3679 3861
Data storage Amdahl Corp.
subsystems &
application software
development
designer/manufacturer Amstrad PLC
of telecomm products X
Personal computer Apple Computer Inc.
systems
Financial data Processing Inc.
processing services
Business machines Canon Inc. X X
Manufacture & Compaq
distribute computers Computer Corp.
Computer systems Cray Research
IT services Electronic Data
Systems Corp. (EDS)
Manufacturer Fujitsu Ltd.
of computer &
communication
equipment X X
Measurement & Hewlett- Packard
computation products
Information processing International
products & systems Business
Machines (IBM) X X
Data warehouse NCR Corp.
systems
Mailing & shipping Pitney Bowes
products Inc.
Electronic business Unisys Corp.
systems integration X
Copiers & computer- Xerox Corp.
related equipment
SIC SIC SIC
Descriptions Company 5045 7372 7374
Data storage Amdahl Corp.
subsystems &
application software
development X
designer/manufacturer Amstrad PLC
of telecomm products
Personal computer Apple Computer Inc.
systems X
Financial data Processing Inc.
processing services X
Business machines Canon Inc.
Manufacture & Compaq
distribute computers Computer Corp. X
Computer systems Cray Research (7373)
IT services Electronic Data
Systems Corp. (EDS)
Manufacturer Fujitsu Ltd.
of computer &
communication
equipment
Measurement & Hewlett- Packard
computation products
Information processing International
products & systems Business
Machines (IBM) X
Data warehouse NCR Corp.
systems X
Mailing & shipping Pitney Bowes
products Inc.
Electronic business Unisys Corp.
systems integration X X
Copiers & computer- Xerox Corp.
related equipment X X
SIC
Descriptions Company 7379
Data storage Amdahl Corp.
subsystems &
application software
development
designer/manufacturer Amstrad PLC
of telecomm products
Personal computer Apple Computer Inc.
systems
Financial data Processing Inc.
processing services
Business machines Canon Inc.
Manufacture & Compaq
distribute computers Computer Corp.
Computer systems Cray Research
IT services Electronic Data
Systems Corp. (EDS) X
Manufacturer Fujitsu Ltd.
of computer &
communication
equipment
Measurement & Hewlett- Packard
computation products
Information processing International
products & systems Business
Machines (IBM)
Data warehouse NCR Corp.
systems X
Mailing & shipping Pitney Bowes
products Inc. X
Electronic business Unisys Corp.
systems integration X
Copiers & computer- Xerox Corp.
related equipment X
* Only those designation for a particular company that were
reported by more than one company were included here.
[] Computer Equipment Manufacturers
[]Photographic Equipment and Supplies
[] Peripheral Equipment
[] Consultants or Software Solution Designers
References Bagdikian, Ben. The Information Machines: Their Impact on Men and the Media. New York New York, state, United States New York, Middle Atlantic state of the United States. It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Atlantic Ocean (E), New Jersey and Pennsylvania (S), Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Canadian province of : Harper Colophone, 1971. Buckland, Michael. Information and Information Systems. New York: Praeger, 1991. --."Information as Thing." Journal of the American Society for Information Science. 42(vol. 5, 1991). Bush, Vannevar Bush, Vannevar (văn`əvər), 1890–1974, American electrical engineer and physicist, b. Everett, Mass., grad. Tufts College (B.S., 1913). . (1945)."As We May Think." The Atlantic. 1945. Davis, Stan and Jim Botkin. "The Coming of Knowledge-Based Business." Harvard Business Review Harvard Business Review is a general management magazine published since 1922 by Harvard Business School Publishing, owned by the Harvard Business School. A monthly research-based magazine written for business practitioners, it claims a high ranking business readership and . September/October 1994. Fromm, Harold. Academic Capitalism & Liberal Value. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press The University of Georgia Press or UGA Press is a publishing house and is a member of the Association of American University Presses. Founded in 1938, the UGA Press is a division of the University of Georgia and is located on the campus in Athens, Georgia, USA. , 1991. Hast, Adele, ed. International Directory of Company Histories. Farmington Hills Far·ming·ton Hills A city of southeast Michigan, an industrial suburb of Detroit. Population: 81,400. , MI: St. James Press, 1991. Horowitz, Irving. Communicating Ideas: The Politics of Scholarly Publishing. New Brunswick New Brunswick, province, Canada New Brunswick, province (2001 pop. 729,498), 28,345 sq mi (73,433 sq km), including 519 sq mi (1,345 sq km) of water surface, E Canada. , N.J.: Transaction Publishing, 1991. Machlup, Fritz Machlup, Fritz (1902–83) economist; born in Vienna, Austria. Educated in Vienna, he came to the U.S.A. in 1933 and taught at several universities including the University of Buffalo (1935–47), Johns Hopkins (1947–60), Princeton (1960–71), . Knowledge: Its Creation, Distribution and Economic Significance (Vol. 1. Knowledge and Knowledge Production). Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Princeton University, at Princeton, N.J.; coeducational; chartered 1746, opened 1747, rechartered 1748, called the College of New Jersey until 1896. Schools and Research Facilities Press, 1980. --.Knowledge: Its Creation, Distribution and Economic Significance (Vol.2. The Branches of Learning). Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1982. --.Knowledge: Its Creation, Distribution and Economic Significance (Vol.3. The Economic of Information and Human Capital). Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1984. --.The Production and Distribution of Knowledge in the United States United States, officially United States of America, republic (2005 est. pop. 295,734,000), 3,539,227 sq mi (9,166,598 sq km), North America. The United States is the world's third largest country in population and the fourth largest country in area. . Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1962. McLuhan, Marshall McLuhan, Marshall (Herbert Marshall McLuhan), 1911–80, Canadian communications theorist and educator, b. Edmonton, Alta. He taught at the Univ. of Toronto (1946–80) and at other institutions of higher education in Canada and the United States. . Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964. Poster, Mark. The Mode of Information: Poststructuralism poststructuralism: see deconstruction. poststructuralism Movement in literary criticism and philosophy begun in France in the late 1960s. Drawing upon the linguistic theories of Ferdinand de Saussure, the anthropology of Claude Lévi-Strauss ( and Social Context. Chicago: University of Chicago Press The University of Chicago Press is the largest university press in the United States. It is operated by the University of Chicago and publishes a wide variety of academic titles, including The Chicago Manual of Style, dozens of academic journals, including , 1990. Rogers, Everett. Communication Technology: The New Media in Society. New York: Free Press, 1986. Schiller, D. "How to Think About Information." In The Political Economy of Information, V. Mosco and J. Wasko, eds. Madison, WI.: University of Wisconsin Press The University of Wisconsin Press (or UW Press), founded in 1936, is a university press that is part of the Graduate School of the University of Wisconsin-Madison, United States. It published under its own name and the imprint The Popular Press. , 1988. University of Illinois University of Illinois may refer to:
Weiner, Richard. Webster's New World Dictionary Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language is an American dictionary first published in 1951 and presently published by John Wiley & Sons. The first edition was published by the World Publishing Company of Cleveland, Ohio in two volumes or one large of Media & Communications, 2nd ed. 1996. Winner, Langdon. "Mythinformation." In Questioning Technology. John Zerzan John Zerzan (born 1943) is an American anarchist and primitivist philosopher and author. His works criticise agricultural civilization as inherently oppressive, and advocate drawing upon the ways of life of prehistoric humans as an inspiration for what a free society should look and Alice Carnes, eds. Philadelphia: New Society Publishers, 1986. Available at http://www.eco-action.org/dt/mythin.html (accessed 28 August 2003). At the Core This article * defines and examines the infromation industry * studies the theory that businesses that know how to convert information into knowledge will be more successful, than those that do not * discusses the results of a research study of 16 information industry companies and their success over a 10-year period Shannon E. Martin is a faculty member in the Department of Communication and Journalism at the University of Maine "UMO" redirects here, but this abbreviation is also used informally to mean the Mozilla Add-ons website, formerly Mozilla Update Should not be confused with Université du Maine, in Le Mans, France The University of Maine . Her writing focuses on the social and legal implications of information technology. She may be contacted at shannon.martin@umit.maine Maine, ship Maine, U.S. battleship destroyed (Feb. 15, 1898) in Havana harbor by an explosion that killed 260 men. The incident helped precipitate the Spanish-American War (Apr., 1898). Commanded by Capt. Charles Sigsbee, the ship had been sent (Jan. .edu |
|
||||||||||||||||
Printer friendly
Cite/link
Email
Feedback
Reader Opinion