Keys to individual and agency success: competent park and recreation departments need support from the entry level to upper management.

Whether you are new to the field or aspiring to be promoted to the next level, the question is always asked, "What skills do I need to be successful in that position?" This question can be addressed through the use of competencies and competency models. Function is the difference between the two competencies are skills, knowledge and characteristics needed to successfully perform a job; whereas a competency model focuses on integration of the competencies into all levels of the organization.

Competencies and competency models have been in existence for at least 30 years, and in the last to years the use of competency models to drive management processes has increased significantly. Lucia and Lepsinger (1999) believe that more and more companies will become competency driven because of intensified competition, the need for cost management and downsizing, and the increased use of 360-degree feedback--all things occurring in parks and recreation.

Competencies are far more than just a list of skills. They start with skills, knowledge and characteristics, but move far beyond them in their use. Competencies have been used for such things as (a) establishing employee evaluation criteria, (b) setting performance benchmarks and assessing readiness for a position, (c) determining hiring criteria, (d) mentoring employees and (e) creating a professional development plan. Specific ways competencies can be used is addressed in "Research into Action" on page 48.

Importance of Competencies

The competency literature is abundant and widespread, and each of the three sectors--market, non-profit and public--has been influenced by the use of competencies. However, competency research in the public sector, and public park and recreation in particular, has been quite limited as there has been little attempt to establish competencies at different levels in public park and recreation. Although there are several similarities between the public and non-profit sector, and the non-profit sector has well-developed competencies, there is a need for competency research specifically in the park and recreation industry.

Competency models in the nonprofit and market sectors have largely been based on a systematic theoretical framework. Competency research has not tested systems theory, as much as it has relied on its premise to explain the impact and importance of skill, knowledge and characteristic development. Systems theory emerges from basic behavioral psychology theory that asserts the individual interacts with the environment.

A systems approach to organizational development assumes that an organization is made of interdependent and interactive parts that make up an identifiable whole. The system has inputs from the internal and external environment such as staff resources and budget limitations. Through transformations, these inputs become outputs such as sports leagues, special events or park development, and with any output there is feedback on the quality of those outputs, such as benefits of participation or quality of services provided.

The goal of any system or agency is to remain as stable as possible by dealing with issues that impact the agency. The agency can only deal with these issues as well as the weakest part does. The stronger the individual parts, whether they are departments within an agency or individuals within a department, the stronger the organization as a whole. The question arises as to how systems theory and competencies work together. The answer may best be explained through the Model of Effective Job Performance.

Boyatzis (1982), using a systems approach, has been a leader in competency development. The premise of Boyatzis' Model of Effective Job Performance is that the goal of management is ultimately to create effective job performance. He argues that effective job performance will occur when the (a) individual's competencies, (b) the job's demands and (c) the organizational environment are consistent. If any of the three do not correspond with each other, ineffective behavior results. This model supports the idea that competencies at all levels in the organization are a necessary part of any organization if it is to be effective in service or product delivery. For example, if a frontline youth programs supervisor is nut skilled at his job, this has an impact on those around him. His performance may put a strain on departments outside of his own, it may strain his peers who have to "pick up the slack," or it could impact his direct supervisor who is ultimately responsible for the youth division. Systems theory shows that if one person is not competent, there is a ripple effect within the organization that requires the organization to adapt to this person's lack of skill. Along this same line, if this same employee strives to improve himself by building his skills, it will impact the agency in a positive way by making it stronger and more ready to deal with change.

Competent Park and Recreation Departments

Given the potential uses for competencies in public park and recreation, it is surprising that they have been sorely under-researched. The research up to this point focuses on competencies required for recreational sports (Jamieson, 1987), public park and recreation (Griffith, 1970; Busser & Bannon, 1987; Smale & Frisby, 1992; Hurd & McLean, 2004), commercial recreation (Hammersley & Tynon, 1998) and board members (Hurd, in press). Although there were sonic common competencies throughout the studies, there has not been sufficient research done to create a profession-wide competency model as the non-profit sector has done. However, as the number of competency studies increases, park and recreation may be moving toward doing just that. To get a better picture of where our profession is in terms of competency development, a few studies should be mentioned.

In an early study, Griffith (1970) examined the tasks of municipal recreation managers in Ontario and found that be could group competencies into nine areas: (a) personnel management, (b) programs, (c) areas and facilities, (d) finance, records and reports, (e) public interpretations, (f) planning and research, (g) community relationships, and (h) community and council relationships. This study focused on what managers do, and not on what skills are needed to do things well. However, it was a starting point for examining job characteristics.

Following a number of years with scant research focusing on competencies, Jamieson (1987) examined competencies needed to manage recreation sports programs in military; municipal and educational settings. She began with 112 competencies and grouped them into 12 categories including: (a) business procedures, (b) communications, (c) facility maintenance, (d) governance, (e) legal issues, (f) management techniques, (g) officiating, (h) philosophy, (i) programming techniques, (j) research, (k) safety/accident prevention and (l) science. She found that there were no significant differences among the different types of agencies, but there was a difference according to the level of management.

The most important competencies to entry-level employees were safety/ accident prevention, programming and science. The most important skills to upper-level managers were knowledge of management techniques, business procedures and legal issues. This study, as well as principles of systems theory, may indicate that it is beneficial to establish separate competencies for entry level and upper-level managers, as they do not all face the same day-today tasks, requirements and challenges.

Busser and Bannon (1987) studied chief executive officers (CEO) in public park and recreation agencies. Their mission was to ascertain how these people spent their time, as well as determine which aspects of their position were most important. The participants in the study were given a list of 58 skills to rank the level of importance and time spent on each. The researchers found a significant correlation between the elements of time and importance. Furthermore, the items that were deemed most important included (a) keeping up to date on participant/ community needs and requirements, (b) formulating budgets, (c) allocating their time, (d) looking for ways to improve the functioning of the organization, (e) keeping the general public, board, participants or other groups informed about the organization's activities, plans and capabilities, and (f) taking immediate action in a crisis.

Because the non-profit sector was far more advanced than the public sector in terms of competency development, Smale and Frisby (1992) recognized the work that had been done on competencies in this sector, and ex pressed concern over the generality of those competencies to public parks and recreation. They felt additional research was needed to examine work activities of municipal recreation managers. Their study attempted to address this question regarding competencies, based on the four processes of management they identified as planning, organizing, influencing and controlling. They looked at entry, middle and upper managers in park and recreation. Entry-level managers rated communicating with the public, scheduling activities and programs, and planning programs and services as the top three competencies needed for their positions in the organization. Middle managers chose communicating with the public, planning and preparing budgets, and problem solving. These choices were very similar to upper managers who selected planning and preparing budgets, monitoring budgets, and problem solving and communicating with the public as their most needed skills. All three groups rated research methods as their lowest priority. It is not surprising that entry-level employees rated program planning and scheduling as their most needed competencies. It is not unusual, especially in public park and recreation, for entry-level employees to be facility and/or program supervisors.

Seeing a gap in the research, Hurd and McLean (2004) looked at competencies needed by CEOs in public park and recreation. They were able to develop a three-tiered competency framework including general competencies, primary competencies and specific competencies. Each tier becomes more detailed in the skills, knowledge and characteristics needed by a CEO. They found six general competency categories with 20 primary competencies, and 72 specific competencies throughout the primary competencies (see "Research into Action" on page 48).

In addition to employees, there are some recent studies that have focused on boards in public park and recreation agencies. Galloway (1999) asked CEOs what competencies they felt board members should have. He presented 42 different competencies that could be equally divided between skills and knowledge the board member needed, and characteristics the CEO wanted them to possess. The CEOs felt it was most important the board member be open minded, have the ability to listen, avoid micro-managing staff and serve as an advocate for the department.

Taking a different approach, Fokken (2003) tested an evaluation instrument originally developed and used in the non-profit sector. This instrument was skill and knowledge based, and eliminated those competencies best defined as characteristics needed by the board member. He found that five of the six competency areas could be used as a guide for public park and recreation. These results suggest there may be a link between competencies for the public and non-profit sectors.

Hurd (in press) worked with current public park and recreation board members to develop a two-tiered, Board Member Competency Framework. She found that there were eight general competency categories and 56 specific competencies board members felt they needed to be successful. Those eight categories included (a) advocacy (b) board effectiveness, (c) community relations, (d) decision making, (e) education and experience, (f) finance and planning, (g) interpersonal characteristics, and (h) staff relations. There are several similarities and differences among the three studies on board competencies. However, this should be expected as the audience was different (CEOs, non-profit sector, and current public park and recreation board members) for each study.

Implementing Competencies

In examining the research undertaken to date, progress is being made on competencies. There has been much written about their uses and importance, yet few agencies have had the foresight to implement competency models in their management practices. However, there are two examples of competency use as a guiding force in management. Both the National Park Service and the California Parks and Recreation Society have embarked on competency development.

The National Park Service (NPS) (1994) has developed an extensive competency model. In order to discuss the NPS model, its predecessors must be mentioned. The Office of Personnel Management (OPM) is a department within the federal government that hires and trains employees for such jobs as the Federal Bureau of Investigation and Central Intelligence Agency. In order to ensure the right people are hired, OPM implemented core qualifications that are now used to test new senior executives. The competencies were based on extensive research in both the private and public sectors, and OPM identified five fundamental qualifications and 27 competencies that senior executives must possess including such things as strategic planning, conflict management and financial management. When applying for federal government executive positions, applicants must explain in writing how they meet these competencies. A review board then selects the most qualified candidates for interviews. From this, the National Park Service also implemented Leadership 2000[TM], a competency-based leadership development program. The purpose of the program was to provide management and other staff with tools to develop skills needed to improve organizational effectiveness, improve staff morale and increase customer service. With these two programs, they are using competencies for setting hiring criteria, assessing readiness for a position, and creating development plans.

The California Park and Recreation Society (CPRS) created the Vision ... Insight ... Planning (VIP) Project, which outlined among other things their vision, values, mission and strategies for the future. As a part of the VIP Project, 13 competencies were identified for the profession and included (a) strategic thinking, (b) communications, (c) multidisciplinary skills, (d) ecosystem management, (e) skills in human development, (f) leadership, (g) outcome driven management, (h) mentoring, (i) political dynamics, (j) knowledge and use of prevention models, (k) research and evaluation, (1) resource development, and (m) technology skills (CPRS, n.d.). These competencies are presented as an integral part of how the profession should function in the future and how the professionals themselves can successfully meet the challenges they face.

Competency research is increasing at all levels of the organization from entry-level positions to the board. Getting this information to practitioners is paramount, as we need professionals prepared to deal with the challenges we are facing today and in the future. The best way to do that is to build competencies from which professionals can develop those necessary skills, and implement them at all levels of the agency making it a competency-driven organization.

References

Boyatzis, R. E. (1982) The competent manager: A model for effective performance New York Wiley Publishing

Busser, J. A., & Bannon, J. J. (1987). Work activities performed by management personnel in public leisure service organizations, Journal of Park and Recreation Administration, 5, 1, 1-16.

California Park and Recreation Society. (n.d.). Creating Community in the 21st Century--Vision ... Insight ... Planning (VIP) Project Retrieved September 8, 2004 from the World Wide Web www.cprs.org/pdf/cc21.pdf.

Fokken, P. (2003). Construction and validation for competencies of Board Self-Assessment Questionnaire (BSAQ) for park and recreation board members. A model development. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Indiana University, Bloomington.

Galloway, R. (1999) Desired characteristics of park and recreation executive heard members: A Delphi study Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Texas A&M University-Commerce.

Griffith, C.A. (1970). A study of municipal recreation personnel in Ontario with implication for continuing education 1968-1969 Recreation Review. 1, 1, 5-15.

Hammersley, C. H., & Tynon, J. F. (1998). Job competencies of entry level resort and commercial recreation professionals. Journal of Applied Recreation Research, 23, 3, 225-241.

Hurd, A. R. (in press) Perceived competencies of board members in public park and recreation agencies Journal of Park & Recreation Administration

Hurd, A. R. & McLean, D. D. (2004). An analysis of perceived competencies of CEOs in public parks and recreation agencies. Managing Leisure, 9, 96-110.

Jamieson, L. M. (1987). Competency-based approaches to sport management. Journal of Sport Management, 1, 1, 48-56.

Lucia, A. D., & Lepsinger, R. (1999) Competency models: Pinpointing critical success rectors in organizations. San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass/Preffer.

National Park Service. (1999). Competency-based leadership-development initiative. Washington D.C.: NPS.

Smale, B. J. A, & Frisby, W. (1992). Managerial work activities and perceived competencies of municipal recreation managers Journal of Park and Recreaction Administration, 10, 4, 81-108.

RESEARCH INTO ACTION: BECOMING A COMPETENCY-DRIVEN AGENCY

Competencies alone are just a list of skills, knowledge and characteristics. Their true value becomes evident when they are implemented into the organization. Implementation at all levels creates a competency-driven organization and one that increases its own efficiency.

The following are ways to use developed competencies as well as an overview of research-determined CEO competencies.

HOW TO USE COMPETENCIES

1. Establish employee evaluation criteria

Competencies can he used to guide employee evaluations for all levels of the organization, but may be exceptionally beneficial at the CEO level. At this level the evaluation is usually conducted by the president of the board of directors or a personnel committee of board members. Established competencies provide guidance or a framework for the employee to be evaluated. The CEO can then be assessed based on his ability to meet established competencies for the position. Using competencies for evaluation purposes may be most beneficial to the board member who does not have a background in the park and recreation profession, yet is given the task of evaluating the CEO.

2. Set performance benchmarks and assess readiness for a position

Competencies can be used as benchmarks for employees to measure against their own skills, knowledge and characteristics. This allows the individual to focus training where there are some deficiencies. He can then see what competencies are needed for advancement and build those skills so he is prepared for his next position.

3. Determine hiring criteria Competencies can be used to write job descriptions (see www.cprs.org for an example), guide a search committee, or reconfigure a position. Elected or appointed board members who are not knowledgeable about the day-to-day operations of the department usually hire the CEO. Competencies can give direction to those hiring so the right person for the job is selected.

4. Mentor employees

Mentoring employees usually involves teaching them what we know. If a CEO were mentoring an employee to take over the top position, it would be more beneficial to know the full scope of established competencies rather than to their own skill set where there could he deficiencies.

5. Create a professional development plan

Rather than a haphazard approach to professional development or choosing workshops and conferences because they look fun, competencies can outline where professional development dollars should be focused for the individual.

DETERMINED CEO COMPETENCIES

The CEO Competency Framework (Hurd & McLean, 2004) discussed below has six general competency categories with 20 primary competencies and 72 specific competencies. Due to space limitations, only the general competency categories and a few of the primary competencies will be listed.

1. Business acumen--general business practices, financial management, human resources management and technology.

2. Communications and marketing--Verbal, written, and listening skills; facilitation skills; and media relations.

3. Community relations--customer service, accountability to the public, and the ability to assess community needs.

4. Leadership and management--knowledge of leadership and management principles, interpersonal skills, conflict resolution and decision making, and political and legislative acumen.

5. Planning and evaluation--ability to develop goals, objectives and an organizational mission; long-range planning skills; and visioning and trends.

6. Professional practice--five-plus years of experience, knowledge of technical areas and professionalism.

Amy Hurd is an assistant professor in the School of Kinesiology & Recreation at Illinois State University. Her research interests are in the area of competency development and management issues within public park and recreation. A complete list of CEO and board member competencies can be obtained from Hurd by e-mailing, [e-mail].