Journal file.

This section of the Journal attempts to keep readers informed of current resources of an integrative nature or those related to the general field of the psychology of religion appearing in other professional journals. A wide range of psychological and theological journals are surveyed regularly in search of such resources. The editor of the Journal File welcomes correspondence from readers concerning relevant theoretical or research articles in domestic or foreign journals which contribute directly or indirectly to the task and process of integration and to an understanding of the psychology of religion.

PROFESSIONAL PSYCHOLOGY: RESEARCH AND PRACTICE

Hage, S. M. (2006).

A closer look at the role of spirituality in psychology training programs

Vol. 37 (3), 303-310

This article examines the role of spiritual and religious content in psychology training programs. Spirituality is defined as searching for meaning and purpose in one's life as well as having a relationship with a transcendent being. While religion can be a part of one's spirituality, religion refers more specifically to involvement in an organized system of beliefs and traditions. Hage argues for the integration of training related to spirituality and religion into psychology programs.

Research indicates that some differences exist in the way clinical psychology, counseling psychology, marital and family therapy, and rehabilitation psychology approach such integration. For example, clinical psychology programs appear to include such integration in supervision, while marriage and family therapy programs are expected to include issues related to spiritual and religious diversity in their curriculum. Similarities also exist between the sub-disciplines, including a general openness to the idea of integrating spiritual and religious diversity issues in their training programs. In spite of this general openness, however, Hage points to a scarcity of overall integration in actual practice. She postulates that the discrepancy between espoused attitudes and actual steps toward integration may reflect a lack of competency among faculty in this area.

Nonetheless, Hage contends that such actual integration is essential for at least two reasons. First, like education in any diversity issue, it allows practioners to more fully understand their clients as well as to keep their own unconscious biases from negatively affecting the therapeutic work. Second, it opens up the potential for a variety of effective, spiritual interventions, such as meditation.

Hage suggests practically integrating spiritual and religious content into training programs through supervision experiences as well as new and existing courses. She particularly highlights the importance of integrating these topics into the area of assessment. In pursuing such integration, she cautions against blurring the boundary between being a therapist and being a spiritual leader. In spite of this caution, Hage contends that there should be room to address the sensitive topics of religion and spirituality in therapy just as there is room to address other sensitive topics, such as sexuality and race, in therapy.

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF HEALTH BEHAVIOR

Benjamins, M. R. (2006).

Does religion influence patient satisfaction?

Vol. 30 (1), 85-91

Patient satisfaction is frequently utilized to assess the quality of health care. It is also important as a predictor of an array of health-related behaviors, such as treatment compliance. This study postulated that patient satisfaction may vary by levels of individual religiosity.

Benjamins examined this potential relationship through a national survey of older adults (mean age of 67) since religiosity is often found to be particularly salient among this age group. The 14,557 completed surveys received included questions relating to the importance of religion in respondents' lives; their satisfaction with the quality, cost, and convenience of past health care experiences; a host of demographic variables including age, marital status, education, net worth, ethnicity; and a few variables related to health status such as self-rated health, number of chronic conditions, and functional limitations.

Benjamins' results first confirmed previous findings that older adults, married adults, and those with more education report higher levels of satisfaction with their health care. With the exception of those with chronic conditions, healthier adults also indicate that they are more satisfied with their health care. Gender, ethnicity, and net worth failed to display a significant outcome in relation to health care satisfaction.

The results further indicated that those who consider religion as highly important are likely to report a higher level of satisfaction with health care experiences. These results held true even after demographic, social, and health variables were taken into account. Although correlational data is unable to prove causation, Benjamins concludes by suggesting a number of potential reasons for this relationship, such as religious individuals potentially finding more satisfaction in all areas of their lives.

JOURNAL OF CONSULTING AND CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY 

Oman, D., Hedberg, J., & Thoreson, C. E. (2006).

Passage meditation reduces perceived stress in health professionals: A randomized, controlled trial 

Vol. 74 (4), 714-719

Experiences of sustained stress have been linked to a variety of both physical and mental health conditions as well as a plethora of other problems including disruptions in personal relationships and decreased job satisfaction. This study hypothesized that meditation could decrease stress in health professionals, thus aiding in overall health and well-being.

Participants were self-selected health professionals recruited through a variety of measures at a large hospital in Colorado. The 58 participants were randomly assigned to treatment and wait-list groups. They were assessed in the areas of perceived stress, mental health and vitality, burnout, life satisfaction, and job satisfaction at the beginning of the study, at the conclusion of the eight-week treatment interval, and at two follow-up points over a six month period. The treatment involved participation in eight training sessions conducted for two hour-intervals on a weekly basis. During the training sessions, participants received instruction and practice in the Eight-Point Program (EPP). EPP is a form of meditation with nonsectarian, spiritual underpinnings. It includes eight activities such as passage meditation, slowing down, and putting others first.

Based on conducting hierarchical linear regression models for each outcome variable, the researchers found that the EPP training had significantly beneficial treatment effects on perceived stress and mental health. These effects were mediated by adherence to the treatment but not socially desirable responding. They were larger for participants who considered themselves less spiritual at the outset of the study. Although this study had a number of self-proclaimed limitations including the lack of an alternate treatment group, it suggests that EPP and possibly other forms of meditation may be able to contribute significantly to the well-being of health professionals.

JOURNAL FOR THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF RELIGION

Jacobson, C. J., Luckhaupt, S. E., Delaney, S., & Tsevat, J. (2006).

Religio-biography, coping, and meaning-making among persons with HIV/AIDS 

Vol. 45 (1), 39-56

The ability to make meaning out of difficult or traumatic life experiences is often linked to the successful resolution of such experiences. Religion and spirituality are frequently a key piece of such meaning-making. In attempt to better understand the process of meaning-making, Jacobson, Luckhaupt, Delaney, and Tsevat conducted semi-structured, in-depth interviews with 19 men and women affected with HIV. Special attention was paid to the religious and spiritual elements of their life stories.

Through qualitative analysis, four religio-biography/coping styles were identified. The first, termed Deferring Believers, developed a strong, deferential religious identity as children. This identity was retained throughout life and utilized as a foundation to cope with HIV. This group is perhaps best typified by "Larry" who stated that "God allows all things to happen for a reason."

Like the Deferring Believers, the Collaborative Believers also developed a strong, deferential religious foundation. Unlike the Deferring Believers, however, this group was unable to reconcile their life events with this framework. This group instead adjusted their religious framework to a more collaborative view of relationship with God. After adjusting their views accordingly, this group appeared able to utilize their religious framework for coping with HIV.

In contrast, the Spiritual/Religious Seekers were not able to adjust the deferential religious framework they learned in childhood in a way that adequately reconciled their global beliefs with their current life situations. Members of this group appeared to be spiritually-oriented and seeking some resolution but still experiencing doubt, ambivalence, or criticism regarding their religious upbringings and beliefs. Consequently, they were unable to use their spiritual or religious beliefs to cope with having HIV.

The final group, the Self-Directing Believers, were not raised with a strong religious identity. They appeared to use spiritual experiences and beliefs as a way to cope with HIV, but these experiences and beliefs fell far from a traditional religious framework or community.

In summary, the authors note that the Deferring Believers and Self-Directing Believers were able to integrate their experience of having HIV into preexisting religious/spiritual frameworks fairly easily. The Collaborative Believers were also able to achieve integration, although they had to make adjustments in their original frameworks in order to utilize their frameworks to cope with HIV. In contrast, the Spiritual/Religious Seekers were unable to integrate their religious beliefs with their life experience, thus leaving them in a place of struggle.

Although this study may not exhaust the potential religio-biography/coping styles, it recognizes the importance of finding meaning in one's experiences and integrating them with more global beliefs in order to cope with difficult life experiences. The authors conclude by noting the necessity of understanding such patterns in order to help clients who are facing chronic illness or other difficult life experiences.

PSYCHOANALYTIC PSYCHOLOGY

Simmonds, J. G. (2006).

The oceanic feeling and a sea of change: Historical challenges to reductionist attitudes to religion and spirit from within psychoanalysis

Vol. 23 (1), 128-142.

Simmonds contends that is essential to grasp the historical views on spirituality and religion within psychoanalysis in order to fully understand the papers currently being published on these topics. Not surprisingly, then, Simmonds begins with Freud, who referred to religious and spiritual experience as infantile and neurotic. Freud affirmed research and science as the only legitimate sources of knowledge, thus deeming any form of "revelation" illegitimate.

Although he is well-known for not allowing dissension among his followers, it does appear that Freud was opposed in these views by two friends: Oskar Pfister, a Lutheran pastor and psychoanalyst, and Romain Rolland, a poet and scholar of Indian mysticism. Pfister maintained that while Freud was correct in deeming many forms of religion as false, he erred in lumping all religions under this umbrella. In contrast, Rolland seemed willing to join Freud in dismissing most organized religions; however, he still argued for the reality of religious feelings and experiences outside of organized religion. These two voices were largely ignored as most of Freud's followers embraced his reductionist attitude.

Two other voices, that of Erich Fromm and Erik Erickson, gained more momentum in dissenting from Freud. Fromm made a distinction between authoritarian and humanistic religions. He described the former as submission to authority and the latter as a sense of harmony with the world and oneself. Erickson wrote about the developmental spirituality of children. Like Pfister, he also argued that while some religious experiences may be neurotic, some are quite healthy. During the 1960's, other voices rose up to continue this argument, including Herbert Fingarette and Harry Guntrip. In later decades, Rizzuto and Meissner have continued to extend the work of Pfister, Erickson, and others into the areas of god concept and stages of religious development.

More recently, the dissension with Freud's reductionism has moved away from affirming other religious or spiritual experiences. It has centered instead on arguing that psychoanalysis is in itself a religion. Symington, for example, cited the moral beliefs, emphasis on self-realization, and outright denial of God's existence of many psychoanalysts as evidence of a non-theistic religion in and of itself.

In summary, Simmonds notes that although Freud began the psychoanalytic movement with a decidedly reductionistic attitude, dissenting voices have always existed. These voices first arose from a few of his friends, were followed by some notable psychoanalysts, and have since spread in a number of directions. Understanding these voices is essential to grasping the current momentum of reconciling religion and spirituality within psychoanalysis.

FURTHER READINGS

Aten, J. A., & Hernandez, B. C. (2004). Addressing religion on clinical supervision: A model. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training, 41, 152-160.

Brawer, P. A., Handal, P.J., Fabricatore, A. N., Roberts, R., & Wajda-Johnston, V. A. (2002). Training and education in religion/spirituality within APA-accredited clinical psychology programs. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 33, 203-206.

Easwaran, E. (1991). Mediation: A simple eight-point program for translating spiritual ideals into daily life (2nd ed.). Tomales, CA: Nilgiri Press.

Like, R., & Zyzanski, S.J. (1987). Patient satisfaction and the clinical encounter: Social psychological determinants. Social Science and Medicine, 24, 351-357.

Pargamcnt, K. I, Koenig, H. G., & Perez, L. (1998). Patterns of positive and negative religious coping with major life stressors. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 37, 710-724.

Shapiro, S. L., Astin, J. A., Bishop, S. R., & Cordova, M. (2005). Mindfulness-based stress reduction for health care professionals: Results from a randomized trial. International Journal of Stress Management, 12, 164-176.