Is there job lock? Evidence from the pre-HIPAA era.1. Introduction The fundamental economic issue with job lock is the quality of matches between workers and jobs. Provision of health insurance through the place of employment complicates the labor market labor market A place where labor is exchanged for wages; an LM is defined by geography, education and technical expertise, occupation, licensure or certification requirements, and job experience decisions of both workers and firms. If there are costs of changing jobs associated with changing health insurance plans, or in the extreme case, if a worker is unable to change jobs because a chronic health condition is covered by their current employer's health insurance but would not be covered by a new employer's plan, then the overall quality of matches between workers and employers in the labor market is reduced. The economy functions less efficiently, and workers are on average less productive and receive correspondingly lower pay because they are employed in less-than-optimal jobs. Empirical em·pir·i·cal adj. 1. Relying on or derived from observation or experiment. 2. Verifiable or provable by means of observation or experiment. 3. analyses of job lock have emphasized em·pha·size tr.v. em·pha·sized, em·pha·siz·ing, em·pha·siz·es To give emphasis to; stress. [From emphasis.] Adj. 1. the possible reduction in mobility that occurs when some portion of compensation comes in the form of health insurance. Having to change health insurance policies when changing jobs adds to the transactions costs Transactions costs The time, effort, and money necessary, including such things as commission fees and the cost of physically moving the asset from seller to buyer. Transcations costs should also include the bid/ask spread as well as price impact costs (for example a large sell of a job transition, and thus will reduce the number of job changes. These costs are potentially enormous if a family member has a preexisting pre·ex·ist or pre-ex·ist v. pre·ex·ist·ed, pre·ex·ist·ing, pre·ex·ists v.tr. To exist before (something); precede: Dinosaurs preexisted humans. v.intr. medical condition that would be excluded from coverage under the new employer's health insurance. A number of economists This is an alphabetical list of notable economists. Economists are experts in the science of economics. There is also a list of politicians and statesmen with economic training. have attempted to identify and quantify Quantify - A performance analysis tool from Pure Software. the reduction in mobility caused by employer provision of health insurance, including Madrian (1994), Holtz-Eakin (1994), Monheit and Cooper Cooper may refer to:
Austrian bacteriologist noted for his work in serum diagnosis, including the discovery (1896) of the specific agglutination of bacteria by the blood serum of immunized animals. and Madrian (1994), Buchmueller and Valletta Valletta (vəlĕt`ə), city (1994 est. pop. 9,129), capital of Malta, NE Malta. It is strategically located on a rocky promontory between two deep harbors. Dockyards line the harbors and employ more workers than any other industry. (1996), Penrod (1995), Kapur (1998), Anderson Anderson, river, Canada Anderson, river, c.465 mi (750 km) long, rising in several lakes in N central Northwest Territories, Canada. It meanders north and west before receiving the Carnwath River and flowing north to Liverpool Bay, an arm of the Arctic (1998), and Gilleskie and Lutz Lutz also lutz n. A jump in figure skating in which the skater takes off from the back outer edge of one skate and makes one full rotation before landing on the back outer edge of the other skate. (1999). (1) Early research by Madrian (1994) and Cooper and Monheit (1993) found that health insurance reduces mobility. They focused on transaction costs Transaction Costs Costs incurred when buying or selling securities. These include brokers' commissions and spreads (the difference between the price the dealer paid for a security and the price they can sell it). aspects of job changes, which are exacerbated if a job change also involves a change in health insurance plans. Later work that incorporates health status and employer-provided health insurance, especially Holtz-Eakin (1994), Penrod (1995), and Kapur (1998), turn up little if any evidence of job lock. Others find job lock effects for some labor force groups or equation specifications (for example, Gilleskie and Lutz 1999 for unmarried men; Buchmueller and Valletta 1996 for women; and Penrod 1995 for some equations for married men). The perceived per·ceive tr.v. per·ceived, per·ceiv·ing, per·ceives 1. To become aware of directly through any of the senses, especially sight or hearing. 2. To achieve understanding of; apprehend. magnitude magnitude, in astronomy, measure of the brightness of a star or other celestial object. The stars cataloged by Ptolemy (2d cent. A.D.), all visible with the unaided eye, were ranked on a brightness scale such that the brightest stars were of 1st magnitude and the of the job lock problem was a major motivation for the 1996 Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) was enacted by the U.S. Congress in 1996. According to the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) website, Title I of HIPAA protects health insurance coverage for workers and their families when (HIPAA (Health Insurance Portability & Accountability Act of 1996, Public Law 104-191) Also known as the "Kennedy-Kassebaum Act," this U.S. law protects employees' health insurance coverage when they change or lose their jobs (Title I) and provides standards for patient health, ). (2) In their 1998 Health Confidence Survey, the Employee Benefits Research Institute (EBRI EBRI Employee Benefit Research Institute EBRI Eccma Business Reporting Identifier EBRI Exclusive Buyers Realty Inc. (San Antonio, TX) 1998) found that 27% of individuals reported that they or an immediate family member had experienced some form of job lock, up from 13% in 1991. Although HIPAA specifically addressed the job lock issue by largely eliminating preexisting conditions preexisting condition, n in dentistry, the oral health condition of an enrollee that existed before his or her enrollment in a dental program. preexisting condition exclusions exclusions, n.pl the dental services not covered under a dental benefits program. and by providing access to individual market coverage regardless of health status, after the passage of HIPAA and immediately after its implementation workers still perceived job lock to be a significant problem. (3) But the critical question is whether the actual behavior of workers is consistent with their survey responses. Toward that end, this paper analyzes the two primary labor market The Primary labor market is the market consisting of high wage paying jobs, concrete careers and long term success. It is contrasted by the Secondary labor market, which consist of low-paying, "under the table" (non-taxable) jobs, and temporary positions. effects of job lock, reduced mobility and lower wages. Similar to Kapur (1998), we choose indicators of chronic, serious illness and functional impairments for family members that are highly predictive of health insurance demand. If anyone is job locked, it should be employees who have a family member with a serious health problem. For them, all else equal, we should see longer employment durations. At the same time, if they are in less-than-optimal jobs, they should be observed ob·serve v. ob·served, ob·serv·ing, ob·serves v.tr. 1. To be or become aware of, especially through careful and directed attention; notice. 2. to have lower wages than other similar individuals. (4) We use the 1987 and 1990 Survey of Income and Program Participation The Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP) is a statistical survey conducted by the Demographic Statistical Methods Division of the United States Census Bureau. The main objective of the SIPP is to provide accurate and comprehensive information about the income of (SIPP See SIP. SIPP - Single Inline Pin Package ) panels to empirically em·pir·i·cal adj. 1. a. Relying on or derived from observation or experiment: empirical results that supported the hypothesis. b. examine the effects of job lock on mobility and wages during the period prior to the implementation of HIPAA. Using data prior to the passage and implementation of HIPAA gives the best chance for job lock effects to appear empirically if they are important. The SIPP enables us to follow workers over a longer period of time than most previous studies. Using the SIPP, we examine the mobility effects of job lock by estimating employment duration models that appropriately account for job tenure tenure, in education tenure, in education, a guarantee of the permanence of a college or university teacher's position, awarded upon successful completion of a probationary period, usually seven years. , which numerous studies have found to be an important determinant determinant, a polynomial expression that is inherent in the entries of a square matrix. The size n of the square matrix, as determined from the number of entries in any row or column, is called the order of the determinant. of the likelihood of job mobility. Unlike previous studies, we also use the SIPP to estimate wage equation models that test for the existence of job lock effects. (5) An important advantage of the SIPP in analyzing job lock is that it contains detailed information about labor market behavior over an extended period of time, in addition to information about the health status of each member of the household. (6) We exploit these strengths of the SIPP in our estimation estimation In mathematics, use of a function or formula to derive a solution or make a prediction. Unlike approximation, it has precise connotations. In statistics, for example, it connotes the careful selection and testing of a function called an estimator. of duration and wage models. (7) This combination of data, models, and measures provides a more complete picture of the phenomenon of job lock than has been available to date. 2. Effect of Job Lock on Mobility and Wages To determine the existence and magnitude of job lock effects on mobility and wages, we must first specify empirical models that allow these effects to be identified in the data. For this purpose, we estimate duration models in which workers are "at risk" of ending their current jobs, as well as fairly standard Mincer-type wage equations. We utilize a difference in differences approach that is now common in the literature, using the interaction of health insurance and health conditions measures or proxies to identify the potential job lock effects (e.g., Madrian 1994; Kapur 1998). Employment Durations Our identification of job lock effects on employment durations can be illustrated using the following logistic lo·gis·tic also lo·gis·ti·cal adj. 1. Of or relating to symbolic logic. 2. Of or relating to logistics. [Medieval Latin logisticus, of calculation transformation of the hazard hazard a risk. hazard analysis critical control points a systematic procedure used to identify specific hazards (for example in food production) and establish control systems that focus on preventive measures rather than rely on rate of leaving employment: (1) ln[h/(1 - h)] = x[[beta].sub.0] + health[[beta].sub.1] + hi[[beta].sub.2] + hi X health[[beta].sub.3], where h is the hazard rate, x is a vector of control variables, health is a health status indicator Indicator Anything used to predict future financial or economic trends. Notes: In the context of technical analysis, an indicator is a mathematical calculation based on a securities price and/or volume. The result is used to predict future prices. for workers' families, hi is an indicator that the worker has employer-provided health insurance, hi*health is an interaction variable between the health indicator for workers' families and the health insurance indicator, and the [[beta].sub.i]s are the corresponding parameters to be estimated. (8) Our measures of health are dummy variables This article is not about "dummy variables" as that term is usually understood in mathematics. See free variables and bound variables. In regression analysis, a dummy variable indicating that the worker has a family member with health problems, hi is a dummy variable indicating that the worker has a family health insurance plan provided by an employer, and hi*health is an interaction variable indicating that a family member with health problems is covered by the insurance plan. The coefficient coefficient /co·ef·fi·cient/ (ko?ah-fish´int) 1. an expression of the change or effect produced by variation in certain factors, or of the ratio between two different quantities. 2. [[beta].sub.1] estimates the impact of having a family member with health problems for those without health insurance. The coefficient [[beta].sub.2] corresponds to the impact of employer-provided health insurance on workers with healthy family members. The difference in differences estimate of the job lock effect is the coefficient [[beta].sub.3]. It estimates the additional effect of family health problems for those workers with employer-provided family health insurance plans. Instead of direct measures of family health problems, several earlier studies have used proxies such as family size (Madrian 1994) and spouse spouse A legal marriage partner as defined by state law health insurance coverage (Madrian 1994; Buchmueller and Valletta 1996) to test for the possibility of job lock, reasoning that larger families have higher expected medical expenditures and those with access to spouse health insurance coverage are less likely to be job locked. We also estimate versions of Equation 1 that use these proxies instead of direct family health measures for comparison purposes. Although we agree that those with access to spouse health insurance may have greater mobility for many reasons, including worker heterogeneity het·er·o·ge·ne·i·ty n. The quality or state of being heterogeneous. heterogeneity the state of being heterogeneous. , a stronger test of job lock in the presence of spouse-provided health insurance is obtained by including both the direct measures of health and the measures of spouse health insurance. The intuition intuition, in philosophy, way of knowing directly; immediate apprehension. The Greeks understood intuition to be the grasp of universal principles by the intelligence (nous), as distinguished from the fleeting impressions of the senses. is that a person with a family member with a chronic health condition and employer-provided health insurance would be less locked if he or she were also eligible for employer-provided health insurance through the spouse. (9) This expanded model can be written (2) ln[h/(1 - h)] = X[[beta].sub.0] + health[[beta].sub.1] + hi[[beta].sub.2] + hi x health[[beta].sub.3] + sphi[[beta].sub.4] + sphi x hi[[beta].sub.5] + sphi x health[[beta].sub.6] + sphi x hi x health[[beta].sub.7], where sphi refers to employer-provided health insurance through the spouse. In Equation 1, variation in spouse employer-provided health insurance does not come into play, and the test of job lock is [[beta].sub.3] < 0. In fact, for those without eligibility for spouse-provided health insurance, this remains the test for job lock in Equation 2. We would expect, however, that the extent of job lock would be less for those with access to spouse employer-provided health insurance, suggesting that [[beta].sub.7] > 0. Thus, Equation 2 provides an even richer examination of the job lock hypothesis An assumption or theory. During a criminal trial, a hypothesis is a theory set forth by either the prosecution or the defense for the purpose of explaining the facts in evidence. than is available in Equation 1. Wages If job lock interferes with workers' ability to accept alternative job offers, we would expect workers who are locked to have lower wages than workers who are not locked. Further, to the extent that employers know that a worker is job-locked, they may adjust wage offers to take advantage of the worker's immobility immobility standing still and disinclined to move, as in an animal suddenly blinded; responds to other stimuli unless immobility is part of a dummy syndrome when all stimuli are ignored. . To analyze an·a·lyze v. 1. To examine methodically by separating into parts and studying their interrelations. 2. To separate a chemical substance into its constituent elements to determine their nature or proportions. 3. this type of evidence, we next turn to estimating Mincer-type earnings equations of the form (3) ln y = x[[gamma].sub.0] + health[[gamma].sub.1] + hi[[gamma].sub.2] + health x hi[[gamma].sub.3] + [epsilon], where In y is the natural log of weekly earnings, [epsilon] is a random disturbance DISTURBANCE, torts. A wrong done to an incorporeal hereditament, by hindering or disquieting the owner in the enjoyment of it. Finch. L. 187; 3 Bl. Com. 235; 1 Swift's Dig. 522; Com. Dig. Action upon the case for a disturbance, Pleader, 3 I 6; 1 Serg. & Rawle, 298. , and the other variables are defined as in Equation 1. If employers offer lower wages to job-locked workers or if job-locked workers are stuck in worse matches than other workers, we should observe TO OBSERVE, civil law. To perform that which has been prescribed by some law or usage. Dig., 1, 3, 32. that [[gamma].sub.3] is negative. In addition, as in the case of the duration models, we can estimate a series of wage models that allow the effects of job lock to be larger or smaller depending on eligibility for spouse employer-provided health insurance. The expanded wage equation can be written as (4) ln y = x[[gamma].sub.0] + health[[gamma].sub.1] + hi[[gamma].sub.2] + hi x health[[gamma].sub.3] + sphi[[gamma].sub.4] + sphi x hi[[gamma].sub.5] + sphi x health[[gamma].sub.6] + sphi x hi x health[[gamma].sub.7] + [epsilon]. If there is a job lock effect on wages, it should diminish when spouse health insurance coverage is available. We should then observe that [[gamma].sub.7], the interaction between dual coverage and health status, is positive. 3. Estimation of Employment Durations We use a mixed stock-flow sample of employment spells to estimate the job lock effect on employment durations. The stock portion of the sample is made up of employment spells that are ongoing when the first SIPP interview was conducted. (10) The inclusion of these ongoing spells is made simpler because tenure is reported in a topical topical /top·i·cal/ (top´i-k'l) pertaining to a particular area, as a topical antiinfective applied to a certain area of the skin and affecting only the area to which it is applied. top·i·cal adj. module of the SIPP, meaning that the starting date of each spell spell, word, formula, or incantation believed to have magical powers. The spell can be used for evil or good ends; if evil, it is a technique of sorcery. Many authorities believe that the spell was the precursor of prayer. can be identified, and none of these ongoing spells are left-censored. The flow portion of the sample consists of employment spells that start after the beginning of the first SIPP interview. These spells are also not left-censored. The mixed stock-flow sample of spells gives us a greater likelihood of identifying job lock if it exists, because job-locked workers would be underrepresented un·der·rep·re·sent·ed adj. Insufficiently or inadequately represented: the underrepresented minority groups, ignored by the government. in a sample made up solely of new spells. At the same time, shorter spells are underrepresented in a stock sample, so it is important that we have both types of spells in our sample. To see how to adjust the likelihood function for the presence of stock-sampled observations, let us first consider the case of flow data with no censoring censoring in epidemiology, a loss of information from a study, whether by subjects dropping out of the study or because of infrequent measurement. . Because our data are discrete A component or device that is separate and distinct and treated as a singular unit. , we will treat the durations as discrete random variables Discrete random variable A random variable that can take only a certain specified set of individual possible values-for example, the positive integers 1, 2, 3, . . . For example, stock prices are discrete random variables, because they can only take on certain values, such as $10. . We model the durations of a single spell per worker, and we assume a homogeneous environment Hardware and system software from one vendor; for example, an all-IBM or all-Windows shop. Contrast with heterogeneous environment. so that the length of the spell is uncorrelated with the calendar time in which the spell begins. The probability mass function In probability theory, a probability mass function (abbreviated pmf) is a function that gives the probability that a discrete random variable is exactly equal to some value. (pmf) of durations is f (t,x,[beta]), where t is the duration of the spell, x is a vector of covariates, and [beta] is a vector of parameters. If we let F(t, x, [beta]) denote de·note tr.v. de·not·ed, de·not·ing, de·notes 1. To mark; indicate: a frown that denoted increasing impatience. 2. the cumulative distribution function, the probability probability, in mathematics, assignment of a number as a measure of the "chance" that a given event will occur. There are certain important restrictions on such a probability measure. that a spell lasts at least to periods is simply 1 - F([t.sup.0], x, [beta]). If we define the hazard function as h(t, x, [beta]) [equivalent to] f(t, x, [beta]) / S(t, x, [beta]) and apply the definition of conditional probabilities conditional probability the probability that event A occurs, given that event B has occurred. Written P(AB). , we may express the pmf as (5) [MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSION A group of characters or symbols representing a quantity or an operation. See arithmetic expression. NOT REPRODUCIBLE re·pro·duce v. re·pro·duced, re·pro·duc·ing, re·pro·duc·es v.tr. 1. To produce a counterpart, image, or copy of. 2. Biology To generate (offspring) by sexual or asexual means. IN ASCII ASCII or American Standard Code for Information Interchange, a set of codes used to represent letters, numbers, a few symbols, and control characters. Originally designed for teletype operations, it has found wide application in computers. .]. If we have a sample of n observations, {[t.sub.1], [t.sub.2] ..., [t.sub.n]} the likelihood function of the sample is 6) [MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSION NOT REPRODUCIBLE IN ASCII.]. Often it is not possible to observe all spells until they are completed, and hence spells are often right-censored. Let the set A be the set of all observations in which the spells are completed, and let the set B be the set of all observations in which the spells are fight-censored. For the set of right-censored observations, all we know is that the actual length of the spell is greater than [t.sub.i], the observed length of the spell. Because we know that the actual length of the spell is longer than the observed length [t.sub.i], the contribution of these observations to the likelihood function is just [MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSION NOT REPRODUCIBLE IN ASCII.]. To introduce stock sampling, let the set C be the set of observations that were in progress when data collection began. For these observations, we know that the spell has lasted for r periods before the panel begins. Because we are sampling spells that are already in progress, these observations enter the sample only if the spells are at least of length r, and hence we must adjust by the conditional probability of the spell having length r. Of course, some stock-sampled observations may be right-censored. Let the set D be the set of all stock-sampled observations that are also right-censored. Taking into account all four sets of observations--A, B, C, D--the likelihood function becomes (7) [MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSION NOT REPRODUCIBLE IN ASCII.]. Thus, we have expressed the likelihood function as a function of the hazard functions. All that remains is for us to specify the form of a hazard function. As the hazard function is the conditional probability of leaving a spell of employment given that the employment spell lasted until the previous period, the hazard function must have a range from zero to one. In principle, any mapping with a range from zero to one will suffice suf·fice v. suf·ficed, suf·fic·ing, suf·fic·es v.intr. 1. To meet present needs or requirements; be sufficient: These rations will suffice until next week. . Cox (1972) recommends (8) h(t,x,[beta])/1 - h(t,x,[beta]) = [h.sub.t]/1 [h.sub.t] [e.sup.x[beta]] = exp exp abbr. 1. exponent 2. exponential ([[delta].sub.t] + x[beta]), which is simply the logit The logit function is an important part of logistic regression: for more information, please see that article. In mathematics, especially as applied in statistics, the logit model with intercepts that differ by time periods. The term [h.sub.t] is a baseline The horizontal line to which the bottoms of lowercase characters (without descenders) are aligned. See typeface. baseline - released version hazard function, which is common to all. The x[beta] term, determined by the worker's characteristics, shifts the baseline hazard function. Berger Berger may refer to: Places
Berger is a relatively common last name. It means mountaineer in Dutch and German, and shepherd in French. and Black (1998) consider other hazard functions and find that the results are relatively robust across various specifications of the hazard function. As the logit model is not burdensome computationally com·pu·ta·tion n. 1. a. The act or process of computing. b. A method of computing. 2. The result of computing. 3. The act of operating a computer. , we follow Cox's suggestion and use the logit model. The logit model given by Equation 7 is implemented in the following way. Monthly employment observations for the worker are repeated until the worker's spell of employment ends or the survey ends. (11) If the survey ends, the worker's spell is right-censored. When the observed employment spell ends, the dependent variable takes on a value of one; otherwise, the dependent variable is zero. Thus, a worker who begins his employment spell during the survey and works for 6 months will enter the data set 6 times: the value of his dependent variable will be zero for the first five times (months one through five) and be equal to one for the sixth month. Another worker may enter our sample with nine months of job tenure prior to the beginning of the survey, work an additional 10 months, and quit To exit the current program. during the 19th month of the job. For this worker, we ignore her first nine months of job tenure. As Equation 6 indicates, the duration of her job prior to the beginning of the survey makes no contribution to the value of the likelihood function. For months l0 through 18, her dependent variable takes on the value zero, and for month 19 it takes on a value of one. This worker will appear in the data set a total of 10 times. Because the workers in the data set will have varying degrees of job tenure prior to the beginning of the survey, we can identify the hazard function for many of the possible months of tenure. Indeed, the only disadvantage In policy debate, a disadvantage (abbreviated as DA, and sometimes referred to as a Disad) is an argument that a team brings up against a policy action that is being considered. Structure A DA usually has four key elements. to this approach is that the vector [[delta.sub.t] of Equation 7 can be very large indeed. To economize e·con·o·mize v. e·con·o·mized, e·con·o·miz·ing, e·con·o·miz·es v.intr. 1. To practice economy, as by avoiding waste or reducing expenditures. 2. on the number of parameters estimated, we limit our estimates of the hazard function to the first 20 years of employment. With monthly data, this would involve the estimation of 240 parameters in our [[delta.sub.t] vector. To simplify the computation Computation is a general term for any type of information processing that can be represented mathematically. This includes phenomena ranging from simple calculations to human thinking. of the likelihood function even further, we approximate ap·prox·i·mate v. To bring together, as cut edges of tissue. adj. 1. Relating to the contact surfaces, either proximal or distal, of two adjacent teeth; proximate. 2. Close together. the [[delta.sub.t] vector with a 10th-order polynomial polynomial, mathematical expression which is a finite sum, each term being a constant times a product of one or more variables raised to powers. With only one variable the general form of a polynomial is a0xn+a in the worker's tenure on the job, which reduces the number of parameters to be estimated from 240 to 10. Thus, the hazard function becomes (9) h(t,x,[beta])/1 - h(t,x,[beta]) = [PHI phi n. Symbol  The 21st letter of the Greek alphabet.PHI, n See health information, protected. ](t)[e.sup.x[beta]]= exp[[phi](t) + x[beta]], where [phi](t) is a 10th-order polynomial in the worker's tenure. If we did not control for job tenure, we would be making the implicit assumption that the hazard function is a constant function of tenure. This is equivalent to assuming that the distribution of job spells is exponential 1. (mathematics) exponential - A function which raises some given constant (the "base") to the power of its argument. I.e. f x = b^x If no base is specified, e, the base of natural logarthims, is assumed. 2. , an assumption that the data invariably in·var·i·a·ble adj. Not changing or subject to change; constant. in·var  i·a·bil reject re·jectv. 1. To refuse to accept, submit to, believe, or use something. 2. To discard as defective or useless; throw away. 3. To spit out or vomit. 4. . Virtually every empirical study (e.g., Farber Farber may refer to:
adj. Not precise. im pre·cise ly adv. estimated
parameters for the covariates, but those parameters may be of the wrong
sign as well. Our estimates of the hazard model using Equation 9 avoid
this potential problem by including a 10thorder polynomial in tenure.
4. Data We use the 1987 and 1990 panels of the SIPP to estimate the effects of job lock on mobility and wages. The SIPP is well suited for this task because it follows a large sample of individuals for up to a 28-month period and contains information on employment, wages, health insurance, and the health status of family members, in addition to a whole set of other demographic See demographics. and financial variables. In addition, the use of the 1987 and 1990 panels of the SIPP allow us to observe labor market mobility and wages prior to the passage of HIPAA, which was designed in part to address job lock issues and potentially changed the employer health insurance environment facing workers. Thus, if there is evidence of job lock in employment durations, we are more likely to observe it in our pre-HIPAA data than in data after the implementation of the Act. The SIPP is designed to provide detailed information on the economic situation of households and persons in the United States United States, officially United States of America, republic (2005 est. pop. 295,734,000), 3,539,227 sq mi (9,166,598 sq km), North America. The United States is the world's third largest country in population and the fourth largest country in area. . The data examine the distribution of income, wealth, and poverty in American American, river, 30 mi (48 km) long, rising in N central Calif. in the Sierra Nevada and flowing SW into the Sacramento River at Sacramento. The discovery of gold at Sutter's Mill (see Sutter, John Augustus) along the river in 1848 led to the California gold rush of society and gauge gauge In manufacturing and engineering, a device used to determine whether a dimension is larger or smaller than a reference standard. A snap gauge, for example, is formed like the letter C, with outer “go” and inner “not go” jaws, and is used to the effects of federal and state programs on the well-being of families and individuals. The survey contains (i) basic social and demographic characteristics for each person in a household, and changes in these characteristics over the interviewing period; (ii) a series of core questions repeated during each interview on labor force activity, types and amounts of income, participation in various benefit programs, postsecondary school attendance, and private health insurance; and (iii) topical modules that consist of supplemental questions that vary from wave to wave over the course of the panel. The universe for the SIPP is the resident population of the United States, excluding persons living in institutions and military barracks bar·rack 1 tr.v. bar·racked, bar·rack·ing, bar·racks To house (soldiers, for example) in quarters. n. 1. A building or group of buildings used to house military personnel. . A multistage mul·ti·stage adj. 1. Functioning in more than one stage: a multistage design project. 2. Relating to or composed of two or more propulsion units. stratified sampling Noun 1. stratified sampling - the population is divided into subpopulations (strata) and random samples are taken of each stratum proportional sampling, representative sampling sampling - (statistics) the selection of a suitable sample for study design is used. The households are interviewed in four-month intervals with one-fourth of the panel interviewed in any given month. All persons age 15 and over in the household at the beginning of the survey are included in the entire study, except those who joined the military, were institutionalized in·sti·tu·tion·al·ize tr.v. in·sti·tu·tion·al·ized, in·sti·tu·tion·al·iz·ing, in·sti·tu·tion·al·iz·es 1. a. To make into, treat as, or give the character of an institution to. b. , or left the country. New persons who enter the household are included in the study, but are not followed if they leave the household. Health insurance questions are included as part of the core set of questions, so it is possible to determine the health insurance status of each person in the sample from month to month over the entire survey period. Labor force activity and wages are also part of the core. Complete information on two different jobs held during each four-month wave is provided, allowing a continuous labor market history to he constructed. The health measures used in our analysis come from various waves of the SIPP Panel. Topical modules in different waves contain questions on work limitations, long-term care long-term care (LTC), n the provision of medical, social, and personal care services on a recurring or continuing basis to persons with chronic physical or mental disorders. , child disabilities, overall health rating, health care utilization utilization, n 1. the extent to which a given group uses a particular service in a specified period. Although usually expressed as the number of services used per year per 100 or per 1000 persons eligible for the service, utilization rates may be , health conditions, and functional limitations. Table 1 summarizes the health measures used in the estimation. They include measures of (i) child health problems, (ii) child health problems or spouse health problem indicators, (iii) spouse health-related work limitations, and (iv) spouse health functional limitations. In the construction of our spouse health-related work limitations variable, we use all of the health conditions shown in Table 1 except blindness; deafness deafness, partial or total lack of hearing. It may be present at birth (congenital) or may be acquired at any age thereafter. A person who cannot detect sound at an amplitude of 20 decibels in a frequency range of from 800 to 1,800 vibrations per second is said to be ; missing legs, arms, hands, or fingers; and stiffness stiffness half way to rigidity, tetany; result of insufficient use of the part. or deformity Deformity See also Lameness. Calmady, Sir Richard born without lower legs. [Br. Lit.: Sir Richard Calmady, Walsh Modern, 84] Carey, Philip embittered young man with club foot seeks fulfillment. [Br. Lit. of the foot, leg, arm, or hand. We exclude these conditions because our discussions with health insurance agents and health insurance administration manuals issued to agents indicated that these conditions do not typically exclude an individual from health insurance coverage. (12) Of course, this sharply reduces the number of families with health problems, but increases the accuracy with which we measure health status. Below we estimate hazard models of employment duration and models of wage determination using the four direct measures of family health conditions described in Table 1 along with the spouse insurance and family size proxies of job lock that have been used earlier in the literature. (13) We also estimate a series of models that use the direct measures of health conditions of family members, but allow the effects of job lock to be greater or smaller depending on eligibility for spouse employer-provided health insurance. Table 2 shows the incidence rates of these various direct health measures and the job lock proxies in addition to their interactions with employer-provided health insurance. For example, although the incidence rate of child health problems for boys is 1.5% and for girls is 2.3%, the incidence rate of either child or spouse health problems is substantially higher: 13.5% for males and 13.1% for females. The incidence rate for those with spouse or child health problems and employer-provided health insurance is 6.1% for males and 3.1% for females. Our last direct measure of family health conditions is based on functional limitations measures using data available only in the 1990 SIPP Panel. Functional limitations could possibly give a better picture of health conditions. For example, a spouse may report that he or she has a functional limitation, but may not report that it limits the kind or amount of work. This limitation, however, may still generate significant health expenditures and may potentially influence job mobility of the spouse. In fact, many more spouses report functional limitations than work limitations. For male workers, 13.4% report that either they or their wives have at least one functional limitation, and of these, 4.3% also have family employer-provided health insurance, and thus are potentially subject to job lock. For women, the corresponding estimates are 11.1% and 2.2%. Below the incidence rates for the direct family health measures, Table 2 shows incidence rates (or means) for the spouse insurance and family size job lock proxies. Using the SIPP, we measure the presence of other coverage when the spouse indicates that he or she has employer-provided family coverage. These coverage rates are below those typically seen for employer-provided health insurance coverage because we include only employer-provided family coverage. (14) Only if the spouse has family coverage can his or her insurance be used to ameliorate a·mel·io·rate tr. & intr.v. a·me·lio·rat·ed, a·me·lio·rat·ing, a·me·lio·rates To make or become better; improve. See Synonyms at improve. [Alteration of meliorate. the effects of job lock for the other spouse. Similarly, only if the worker has family coverage can he or she be locked into his or her current job by the health of a child or spouse. Thus, employer-provided family coverage is the appropriate coverage measure to use in this study. We do not use a measure of own health status interacted with own employer-provided health insurance to test for the existence of job lock. This is similar to the approach taken by Madrian (1994) and others who use events such as pregnancy pregnancy, period of time between fertilization of the ovum (conception) and birth, during which mammals carry their developing young in the uterus (see embryo). The duration of pregnancy in humans is about 280 days, equal to 9 calendar months. to measure the health experiences of other family members instead of using own health conditions to attempt to identify job lock effects. (15) We do, however, control for own health status in our empirical models, because those with own health problems are likely to have higher turnover and lower wages due to their health condition. (16) We believe that we can more precisely identify job lock using the health conditions of family members instead of contending with the direct effects of own health on turnover and wages in the process of trying to estimate job lock effects. 5. Results Tables 3 and 4 show estimates of hazard models using the specification of variables given by Equations 1 and 2 and the functional form given by Equation 8. Estimates of Equations 1 and 2 for men are contained in Table 3, whereas Table 4 contains estimates for women. The sample consists of all workers 18 years old and over at the beginning of the sample period. Reported in the tables are the health conditions (or health conditions proxies), own employer-provided health insurance, spouse employer-provided health insurance, and interaction variables. Other variables included in each model and not reported in Tables 3 and 4 are one-digit industry and occupation controls; a quartic quar·tic adj. Mathematics Of or relating to the fourth degree. [Latin qu  rtus, fourth; see quart + -ic. in age;
dummy variables indicating whether the worker is married, divorced di·vorce n. 1. The legal dissolution of a marriage. 2. A complete or radical severance of closely connected things. v. di·vorced, di·vorc·ing, di·vorc·es v.tr. 1. , Black, Native American, Asian, a high school dropout (1) On magnetic media, a bit that has lost its strength due to a surface defect or recording malfunction. If the bit is in an audio or video file, it might be detected by the error correction circuitry and either corrected or not, but if not, it is often not noticed by the human , attended but did not receive a four-year college degree, received a four-year college degree, attended graduate school, is a union member, own health status, whether the observation comes from the 1990 or 1987 SIPP Panel, and a 10th-order polynomial in the worker's tenure to control for the duration dependence. Appendix appendix, small, worm-shaped blind tube, about 3 in. (7.6 cm) long and 1-4 in. to 1 in. (.64–2.54 cm) thick, projecting from the cecum (part of the large intestine) on the right side of the lower abdominal cavity. Table A1 shows the means of the control variables used in the estimation. Consider first the results for men in Table 3. Columns 1 and 2 of Panel A report the spouse coverage and family size tests of job lock. Similar to Madrian (1994) using the National Medical Expenditure Survey (NMES NMES Neuromuscular Electrical Stimulation NMES National Medical Expenditure Survey ), we find higher mobility with dual health insurance coverage and lower mobility among those with employer-provided health insurance and larger families. (17) These findings can be taken as evidence of job lock for those who favor measures such as family size or dual coverage to proxy See proxy server. (networking) proxy - A process that accepts requests for some service and passes them on to the real server. A proxy may run on dedicated hardware or may be purely software. for job lock. Columns 3 through 6 provide tests of job lock using the direct measures of health conditions. Column 3 uses the measure of child health problems, column 4 uses child or spouse health problems, column 5 uses work-related limitations of the spouse using the actual conditions reported in SIPP, and column 6 uses functional limitations of the spouse using the actual conditions reported in SIPP. In contrast to the results using the family size and dual coverage measures of job lock in columns 1 and 2, in no case is there significant evidence of job lock in columns 3 through 6. In fact, the estimates of the health conditions-health insurance interaction in columns 5 and 6 are the opposite sign of that predicted if there were a job lock effect on mobility. (18) In Panel B, the more complete specification given by Equation 2 is estimated. Again, for those without spouse employer-provided health insurance, there is no evidence of job lock. For those with spouse-provided health insurance, [[beta].sub.7] is the opposite sign of that predicted for a job lock effect in columns 2 through 4, and in no case is there significant evidence of job lock. These results are consistent with those of Kapur (1998), who uses NMES data and finds no statistically significant evidence of job lock in the labor mobility Labor mobility or worker mobility is the socioeconomic ease with which an individual or groups of individuals who are currently receiving remuneration in the form of wages can take advantage of various economic opportunities. of men using a family sickness SICKNESS. By sickness is understood any affection of the body which deprives it temporarily of the power to fulfill its usual functions. 2. Sickness is either such as affects the body generally, or only some parts of it. measure of health. (19) At the bottom of Table 3, we show the change in the marginal (jargon) marginal - 1. Extremely small. "A marginal increase in core can decrease GC time drastically." In everyday terms, this means that it is a lot easier to clean off your desk if you have a spare place to put some of the junk while you sort through it. 2. probability of turnover and the percentage change in turnover implied Inferred from circumstances; known indirectly. In its legal application, the term implied is used in contrast with express, where the intention regarding the subject matter is explicitly and directly indicated. by our job lock estimate, evaluated at the mean of the variables of the model. In Panel B, we show the marginal and percentage job lock effects for those without and with access to spouse health insurance. The marginal and percentage changes reported in Panel A of Table 3 for the direct family health measures are fairly small, consistent with the lack of statistical evidence of the job lock parameter (1) Any value passed to a program by the user or by another program in order to customize the program for a particular purpose. A parameter may be anything; for example, a file name, a coordinate, a range of values, a money amount or a code of some kind. estimate. The marginal effects are in the same range as those reported by Kapur (1998) using a similar specification. Although the dual coverage proxy for job lock is statistically significant, the percentage change in turnover (14.26%) is below the percentage effects estimated by Buchmueller and Valletta (1996) using a similar specification, probably due to the larger set of controls or the more extensive controls for tenure. Although the marginal and percentage effects reported in Panel B are somewhat larger, none are based on statistically significant parameter estimates, and only the child health problems measure produces effects in the predicted directions. The results for women are given in Table 4. Just as for men, the results in columns 1 and 2 of Panel A are consistent with job lock if one prefers dual coverage and family size measures. However, as before, in columns 3 through 6, when we use the direct measure of health conditions interacted with employer-provided health insurance, there is no statistically significant evidence of job lock. Using the expanded specification that includes spouse health insurance coverage in Panel B, [[beta].sub.7] is the wrong sign in all four columns and is insignificant in each case. The estimated marginal and percentage changes due to job lock are fairly small in Panel A of Table 4. As with men, the percentage effect in the dual coverage model is below that reported by Buchmueller and Valletta (1996) using a similar specification. The estimated effects in Panel B are also fairly small except for the child health problems measure. However, these estimates are likely to be less precise due to the low incidence rate of child health problems. In any event, all of the marginal effects and percentage changes shown in Panel B are based on statistically insignificant parameter estimates. We performed a number of specification checks on the hazard models reported in Tables 3 and 4. We first re-estimated the hazard models without the tenure variables in order to determine the importance of controlling for tenure in obtaining job lock estimates. In general, the job lock estimated effects increase in absolute value when the tenure variables are excluded. This is especially noticeable using the family size and spouse coverage proxies for job lock, but is also generally the case using the direct health measures as well. The job lock parameter estimates are 87% (spouse coverage) and 60% (family size) higher for men and 33% (spouse coverage) and 63% (family size) higher for women when not controlling for tenure. Thus, in order not to overstate the effects of job lock, it is important to control for tenure. This is not surprising. Given declining hazard rates with tenure, and the fact that those with larger families and employer health insurance or with dual health coverage are likely to have longer tenures for other reasons, the estimated job lock effects are overstated o·ver·state tr.v. o·ver·stat·ed, o·ver·stat·ing, o·ver·states To state in exaggerated terms. See Synonyms at exaggerate. o when not controlling for tenure. We also re-estimated the hazard models shown in Tables 3 and 4 for workers who were 25 years old and over, 35 years old and over, and who were married in order to determine whether the estimates are sensitive to the inclusion of younger and single workers who may be less affected by job lock issues. The results using the direct health measures are qualitatively qual·i·ta·tive adj. Of, relating to, or concerning quality. [Middle English, producing a primary quality, from Medieval Latin qu similar to those reported in Tables 3 and 4: in no case using these alternative samples for either men or women do we find statistically significant job lock estimated effects in the predicted direction. The results for the spouse coverage and family size job lock proxies are similar to those reported in Tables 3 and 4 using the 25-and-over sample. However, the family size results are statistically insignificant for both men and women in the married sample and the 35-and-over sample. Finally, at the suggestion of a reviewer re·view·er n. One who reviews, especially one who writes critical reviews, as for a newspaper or magazine. reviewer Noun a person who writes reviews of books, films, etc. Noun 1. , we also re-estimated the hazard models shown in Tables 3 and 4 controlling for wages. Although we are hesitant hes·i·tant adj. Inclined or tending to hesitate. hes i·tant·ly adv. to proceed in this manner because we view wages as an
endogenous endogenous /en·dog·e·nous/ (en-doj´e-nus) produced within or caused by factors within the organism. en·dog·e·nous adj. 1. Originating or produced within an organism, tissue, or cell. outcome that may be affected by job lock rather than as an exogenous variable Exogenous variable A variable whose value is determined outside the model in which it is used. Related: Endogenous variable , and therefore we estimate wage models in this study, this exercise serves as a useful check on our results since other authors have included wages as controls in their turnover or employment duration models (e.g., Madrian 1994; Buchmueller and Valletta 1996). The results are very similar to those reported in Tables 3 and 4. Although the dual coverage and family size measures produce results that are consistent with job lock, the measures based on the actual conditions of family members produce results that do not support the job lock hypothesis. The estimates in Tables 3 and 4 thus suggest that when we use direct measures of health conditions, we find no statistically significant evidence of job lock in the observed durations of employment. This is not the result of using different data or methodology than earlier studies, such as Madrian (1994), because we have obtained similar results when using the family size and dual coverage measures as proxies for job lock. Instead, we find that the evidence for the phenomenon of job lock does not appear when a more direct test of the phenomenon is employed. The significant results using the spouse insurance and family size proxies may be explained in part by unobserved worker heterogeneity. (20) Those with larger families and employer health insurance may have less mobility, and those with dual health insurance coverage have more mobility for many reasons unrelated to job lock issues. For example, differences in unobserved ability or motivation may reduce the mobility of those with larger families and employer-provided health insurance for reasons unrelated to the health costs of family members. We believe this is less likely to be a problem using the job lock measures based on the interaction of employer-provided health insurance and the actual health conditions of family members. Our estimates of the effects of job lock on wages for men and women are reported in Tables 5 and 6. Columns 1 through 6 in Panel A again refer to the same equation specifications as the corresponding columns in Tables 3 and 4. Similarly, in Panel B, we report the expanded specification that includes spouse health insurance coverage. In columns 1 and 2 in Panel A of Table 5, we see that the coefficient on the interaction between own and spouse health insurance coverage is negative and significant, whereas the coefficient on the interaction between family size and own health insurance coverage is positive and significant, which is opposite what the phenomenon of job lock would predict. If job lock were an important phenomenon, then individuals with dual coverage would be able to sample a greater range of jobs than those with only own coverage, and thus should have higher wages. Likewise, those with large families and employer-provided health insurance would be able to sample a smaller range of jobs than those with small families and employer-provided health insurance, and consequently they would have lower wages. In fact, the opposite is true. Similar to the argument we presented above for employment durations, it may be that rather than job lock, there are unobserved differences such that those who are in large families and have employer-provided health insurance are more able or motivated mo·ti·vate tr.v. mo·ti·vat·ed, mo·ti·vat·ing, mo·ti·vates To provide with an incentive; move to action; impel. mo , and thus are more productive or have better jobs, and those with dual health insurance coverage are less able or motivated, and thus are less productive or are in worse jobs. (21) Columns 3 through 6 in Panel A of Table 5 contain the estimates using the actual health measures of family members. In no case is there strong evidence of significantly lower wages. In fact, in some cases, wages are significantly higher. In the expanded specifications in Panel B, the results for [[gamma].sub.3] are similar to those in Panel A, and [[gamma].sub.7] is not significantly different from zero. Thus, for men there appears to be no compelling evidence for the existence of job lock in our wage equation estimation. The wage results for women are reported in Table 6. In columns 1 and 2 of Panel A, the results using dual coverage and family size as proxies for job lock are presented. Although those with dual coverage are estimated to have higher wages, the result is statistically insignificant. And just as for men, women in larger families with employer-provided coverage have higher, not lower, wages. Thus, the wage implications for job lock do not appear to be borne out for women either. When the actual measures of the health of family members are used, we see higher wages in three out of four cases, again opposite that implied if job lock were present. In Panel B, using the expanded specification, the job lock effects are of the wrong sign in all cases for those with ([[gamma].sub.7]) spouse-provided health insurance and in three of four cases for those without ([[gamma].sub.3]) spouse-provided health insurance coverage. (22) Overall, there appears to be little evidence of job lock among women when using wages as an outcome of the employment relationship. Thus, the investigation of wage outcomes produces little if any evidence of job lock using either the family size or dual coverage measures, or the measures based on the actual health conditions of family members. The results of the tests based on the interaction of actual health conditions of family members and employer-provided health insurance are consistent in the wage and employment duration models in that they show no evidence of job lock. On the other hand, using the family size or dual coverage measures, we find results that are consistent with job lock in the employment duration models, but not in the wage equation models. As we argue above, the effects of unobserved heterogeneity may help explain the difference in the results using the two labor market outcomes. Take the case of family size. Suppose the effect of the unobserved heterogeneity in, for example, ability or motivation is to increase wages but at the same time reduce mobility in those with larger families and employer-provided health insurance. This could explain the inconsistent Reciprocally contradictory or repugnant. Things are said to be inconsistent when they are contrary to each other to the extent that one implies the negation of the other. job lock results in the hazard and wage models. The measures based on the actual conditions of family members may be less likely to be affected by this unobserved heterogeneity, which could explain why the results based on these measures are consistent for the two labor market outcomes of employment duration and wages. 6. Conclusions Anecdotal evidence anecdotal evidence, n information obtained from personal accounts, examples, and observations. Usually not considered scientifically valid but may indicate areas for further investigation and research. confirms that job lock is a serious problem for some people. Nevertheless, we find no statistically significant increases in employment durations or decreases in wages for those with employer-provided health insurance and with health problems in the family as would be expected if job lock were pervasive pervasive, adj indicates that a condition permeates the entire development of the individual. . We test for job lock using a hazard model framework exploiting variation in employment durations by employer-provided health insurance status and the actual health conditions of family members. Thus, we obtain a very direct test of the job lock phenomenon, instead of relying on proxies for family health such as other health insurance coverage or family size. Other researchers have found that worker mobility is affected by family size or the presence of other insurance, and they have interpreted Translated from source code into machine code one line at a time. See interpreted language and interpreter. interpreted - interpreter these results as evidence of job lock. When we estimate duration models that depend on the presence of other insurance or family size, we do get similar results to those obtained earlier. We find that employment durations increase for those in large families with employer-provided health insurance, and that employment durations decrease for those having both employer-provided health insurance and health insurance from another source. On the other hand, using the measures based on the interaction of employer-provided health insurance and the actual health conditions of family members, we find no evidence of job lock in employment durations. Some would argue that this constitutes mixed evidence in favor of upon the side of; favorable to; for the advantage of. See also: favor job lock on employment durations. But if job lock is a pervasive phenomenon that is distorting labor market decisions, we should see lower wages for those workers who are potentially locked into their jobs. We do not, whether we use the more direct measures of job lock (i.e., the interaction of employer-provided health coverage and health conditions) or measures using dual coverage and family size. In fact, for men we find exactly the opposite of what we would expect if job lock were driving the results. Male workers with large families have higher wages, and male workers with dual health insurance coverage have lower wages. Thus, we consistently find no evidence of job lock using the measures based on the actual health conditions of family members, whether we look at the outcome of employment duration or wages. When using the measures of family size or dual coverage, the employment duration and wage results yield opposite conclusions with respect to job lock. One potential explanation for this inconsistency in·con·sis·ten·cy n. pl. in·con·sis·ten·cies 1. The state or quality of being inconsistent. 2. Something inconsistent: many inconsistencies in your proposal. is that measures such as family size and dual coverage may be more likely to be correlated cor·re·late v. cor·re·lat·ed, cor·re·lat·ing, cor·re·lates v.tr. 1. To put or bring into causal, complementary, parallel, or reciprocal relation. 2. with unobserved factors such as ability and motivation. For example, those with large families may be more likely to have longer employment durations and higher wages, which could explain the inconsistent results. On the other hand, job lock tests based on the health status of family members are less likely to suffer from this potential problem. What are we left to conclude? Despite anecdotal evidence of job lock, our results based on the actual health conditions of family members do not suggest that this phenomenon is pervasive in the U.S. economy. So why does this all matter? Earlier research on job lock led to estimates that put the number of job-locked workers in the millions. The perception that millions of workers were job locked figured into the legislative cost-benefit analysis cost-benefit analysis In governmental planning and budgeting, the attempt to measure the social benefits of a proposed project in monetary terms and compare them with its costs. that led to the passage of HIPAA in 1996. If HIPAA has no downside Downside The dollar amount by which the market or a stock has the potential to fall. Notes: You might hear someone say that the downside on stock XYZ is $10. What that means is that the stock could fall by this amount if things got bad. , then overestimating the number of job-locked workers is not important. But the guaranteed issue requirements and limitations on preexisting condition exclusions in HIPAA have raised the costs of supplying health insurance in the small group market (U.S. General Accounting Office 1998), and that may be contributing to the continuing rise in the number of Americans who lack employer-provided health insurance. The Employee Benefits Research Institute (1998) survey found that a considerable number of workers, when asked about job lock, indicated that they somehow feel less mobile because of employer-provided health insurance. Does this mean that job lock is a problem that indeed required a legislative fix, or do these survey responses merely indicate that employer-provided health insurance, along with any number of other job-connected or personal factors, may cause workers to think twice before looking for Looking for In the context of general equities, this describing a buy interest in which a dealer is asked to offer stock, often involving a capital commitment. Antithesis of in touch with. alternative employment? Our results indicate that the latter interpretation may be closer to the truth. Even in the pre-HIPAA environment, we were able to detect no statistically significant decrease in the mobility or wages of workers with employer-provided health insurance and a family member with an adverse health condition. Appendix
Table A1. Means of Control in Hazard and Wage Models in Tables 3-6
Variable Men Women
Year (1987 = 1) 0.345 0.341
Age (years) 34.0 35.0
Months of tenure 46.7 41.2
Married (=1) 0.562 0.529
Divorced (=1) 0.108 0.201
Black (=1) 0.106 0.129
Native American (=1) 0.006 0.005
Asian or Pacific 0.031 0.030
Islander (=1)
Hispanic (=1) 0.107 0.090
High school dropout (=1) 0.154 0.122
Some college (=1) 0.234 0.270
Bachelor's degree (=1) 0.135 0.124
Graduate degree (=1) 0.114 0.091
Number of kids 1.21 1.25
Union (=1) 0.170 0.113
Log (hours per week) 3.70 3.50
Own health problems 0.110 0.163
Number of persons 18,477 18,955
Industries
Agriculture, forestry, 0.025 0.010
fishing (=1)
Mining (=1) 0.010 0.002
Construction (=1) 0.100 0.010
Transportation, 0.094 0.042
communications, and
public utilities (=l)
Wholesale trade (=1) 0.052 0.026
Retail trade (=1) 0.153 0.196
Finance, insurance, 0.046 0.085
real estate (=1)
Business services (=1) 0.071 0.052
Personal services (=l) 0.019 0.054
Entertainment and 0.015 0.010
recreation services (=1)
Professional and
related services (=1) 0.117 0.329
Government (=1) 0.069 0.045
Occupations
Managers (=1) 0.114 0.104
Professionals (=l) 0.104 0.138
Technical (=1) 0.038 0.036
Sales (=1) 0.097 0.123
Service (=1) 0.111 0.183
Farm, forestry, fishing (=1) 0.029 0.006
Precision production (=1) 0.188 0.021
Operators and laborers (=1) 0.258 0.097
Samples are the same as those in Tables 5 and 6.
Table 1. SIPP Measures Used to Construct Family Health Problems
Variables
1. Child health problems: The individual indicates that one or more
of the children under 18 in the household have a long-lasting
physical, mental, or emotional condition that limits their ability
to walk, run, or play, or that one or more of the children have a
long-lasting mental or emotional problem that limits their ability
to learn.
2. Child health problems or spouse health problem indicators: The
individual indicates child health problems as in measure 1 above or
one or more of the following:
Work limitations: The spouse indicates that a physical, mental, or
other health condition limits the kind or amount of work or that a
health condition or disability is the primary reason for working
less than 35 hours per week;
Need for formal or informal caregiving: The spouse indicates that
there were times during the past month when they needed help with
things like personal care, housework, preparing meals, or getting
to the doctor or the store;
Health rating: The spouse rates his or her health in general to be
"fair" or "poor";
Health care utilization: The spouse was a patient in a hospital
overnight or longer in the last year.
3. Spouse work limitation: The spouse reports a work limitation due
to one or more of the following health conditions:
Alcohol or drug problem or disorder; AIDS or AIDS-related
condition; arthritis or rheumatism; back or spine problems;
blindness or vision problems; broken bone/fracture; cancer;
cerebral palsy; deafness or serious trouble hearing; diabetes;
epilepsy; head or spinal cord injury; heart trouble, hardening of
the arteries; hernia or rupture; high blood pressure; kidney
stones or chronic kidney trouble; learning disability; lung or
respiratory trouble; mental or emotional problem or disorder;
mental retardation; missing legs, arms, hands, or fingers;
paralysis of any kind; senility/dementia/Alzheimer's disease;
speech disorder; stiffness or deformity of the foot, leg, arm, or
hand; stomach trouble; stroke; thyroid trouble or goiter; tumor,
cyst, or growth; or other. (All of the listed conditions are
included in the 1990 SIPP Panel. The 1987 SIPP Panel included all
of the conditions except AIDS or AIDS-related condition, broken
bone/fracture, epilepsy, head or spinal cord injury, learning
disability, and speech disorder. In the 1987 SIPP Panel,
respondents were asked about the main condition causing the work
limitation, whereas in the 1990 SIPP Panel, respondents were
allowed to name up to three conditions.)
4. Spouse functional limitation (1990 SIPP Panel only): The spouse
reports one or more of the following functional limitations:
Difficulty getting around, seeing, hearing, being understood,
lifting 10 pounds, climbing a flight of stairs, walking
one-quarter mile, using the phone, getting to shopping or the
doctor's office, getting into or out of a bed or chair, taking a
bath or shower, dressing, eating, using the toilet, keeping track
of money, preparing meals, and doing light housework such as
washing dishes or sweeping.
Table 2. Incidence Rates and Means of Health Measures Usedfor Effects
of Job Lock, 1987 and 1990 SIPP Panels
Health Measures Men Women
Own employer-provided family health insurance 0.387 0.218
Child health problems 0.015 0.023
Child health problems x own employer-provided family
health insurance 0.009 0.008
Child or spouse health problems 0.135 0.131
Child or spouse health problems x own employer-provided
family health insurance 0.061 0.031
Spouse work limitations 0.021 0.026
Spouse work limitations x own employer-provided family
health insurance 0.012 0.008
Spouse functional limitations 0.134 0.111
Spouse functional limitations X own employer-provided
family health insurance 0.043 0.022
Spouse employer-provided family health insurance 0.108 0.272
Spouse employer-provided family health insurance x own
employer-provided family health insurance 0.043 0.051
Family size (other than respondent) 1.77 1.78
Family size X own employer-provided family 0.914 0.455
health insurance
Samples used are the same as those in Tables 5 and 6.
Table 3. Male Turnover and Tests of Job Lock, 1987 and 1990 SIPP Panels
Panel A
Model Specification
Child
Dual Family Health
Explanatory Variables Coverage Size Problems
(1) (2) (3)
Own employer-provided -0.674 -0.548 -0.645
family health insurance (18.67) (9.74) (19.49)
Spouse employer-provided -0.080 -- --
family health insurance (1.71)
Family size -- -0.008 --
(0.265)
Family member with -- -- 0.003
health problems (0.025)
Spouse health 0.153 -- --
insurance x own health (1.72)
insurance
Family size x own -- -0.045 --
employer health insurance (2.09)
Family member with health -- -- -0.001
problems x own employer (0.005)
health insurance
Family member with
health problems x spouse
employer health insurance -- -- --
Family member with health
problems x own
employer health
insurance x spouse
employer health insurance -- -- --
Number of person months 316,129 316,129 316,129
Number of persons 18,477 18,477 18,477
Marginal job lock effect on
probability of turnover 0.0042 -0.0012 0.0000
Percentage job lock effect
on probability of turnover 14.26 -4.19 -0.09
Panel A
Model Specification
Child or
Spouse Spouse Spouse
Health Work Functional
Explanatory Variables Problems Limitation Limitation
(4) (5) (6)
Own employer-provided -0.636 -0.647 -0.725
family health insurance (17.94) (19.39) (16.86)
Spouse employer-provided -- -- --
family health insurance
Family size -- -- --
Family member with 0.083 0.159 0.033
health problems (1.64) (1.54) (0.680)
Spouse health -- -- --
insurance x own health
insurance
Family size x own -- -- --
employer health insurance
Family member with health -0.043 0.043 0.120
problems x own employer (0.585) (0.270) (1.13)
health insurance
Family member with
health problems x spouse
employer health insurance -- -- --
Family member with health
problems x own
employer health
insurance x spouse
employer health insurance -- -- --
Number of person months 316,129 316,129 215,553
Number of persons 18,477 18,477 12,105
Marginal job lock effect on
probability of turnover -0.0012 0.0012 0.0032
Percentage job lock effect
on probability of turnover -4.01 4.01 11.2
Equations also include one-digit occupation and industry dummies, a
quartic in age, dummy variables indicating own health status, and
whether the worker is married, divorced, Black. Native American. Asian,
a high school drop out, attended but did not receive a four-year
college degree, received a four-year college degree, attended graduate
school, is a union member, and whether the observation comes from the
1990 or 1987 SIPP Panel. The equations contain a 10th-order polynomial
in the worker's tenure to control for the duration dependence. Absolute
values of asymptotic z -statistics are given in parentheses. The
predicted marginal job lock effect on the probability of turnover is
evaluated at the mean of the variables in the models, and the predicted
percentage change in the probability of turnover is measured relative
to the sample mean turnover rate (equal to 0.02947 for Columns 1-5, and
0.02904 for Column 6).
Panel B
Model Specification
Child or
Child Spouse
Health Health
Explanatory Variables Problems Problems
(1) (2)
Own employer-provided -0.672 -0.671
family health insurance (18.40) (17.24)
Spouse employer-provided -0.074 -0.081
family health insurance (1.55) (1.51)
Family size -- --
Family member with 0.082 0.092
health problems (0.549) (1.64)
Spouse health insurance x 0.139 0.206
own health insurance (1.53) (2.07)
Family size x own
employer health insurance -- --
Family member with health -0.124 -0.019
problems x own employer (0.537) (0.239)
health insurance
Family member with health -0.209 -0.014
problems x spouse (0.794) (0.134)
employer health insurance
Family member with health 0.483 -0.256
problems x own employer (0.956) (1.17)
health insurance x spouse
employer health insurance
Number of person months 316,129 316,129
Number of persons 18,477 18,477
Marginal job lock effect on
probability of turnover
with no spouse insurance -0.0034 -0.0005
Percentage job lock effect
on turnover with no
spouse insurance -11.56 1.77
Marginal job lock effect
with spouse insurance 0.0099 -0.0076
Percentage job lock effect
with spouse insurance 33.47 -25.63
Panel B
Model Specification
Spouse Spouse
Work Functional
Explanatory Variables Limitations Limitations
(3) (4)
Own employer-provided -0.678 -0.768
family health insurance (18.48) (16.31)
Spouse employer-provided -0.085 -0.135
family health insurance (1.78) (2.29)
Family size -- --
Family member with 0.121 0.039
health problems (1.03) (0.785)
Spouse health insurance x 0.163 0.179
own health insurance (1.80) (1.47)
Family size x own
employer health insurance -- --
Family member with health 0.091 0.144
problems x own employer (0.526) (1.30)
health insurance
Family member with health 0.139 -0.267
problems x spouse (0.580) (1.23)
employer health insurance
Family member with health -0.261 -0.057
problems x own employer (0.571) (0.141)
health insurance x spouse
employer health insurance
Number of person months 316,129 215,553
Number of persons 18,477 12,105
Marginal job lock effect on
probability of turnover
with no spouse insurance 0.0025 0.0039
Percentage job lock effect
on turnover with no
spouse insurance 8.48 13.44
Marginal job lock effect
with spouse insurance -0.0047 0.0024
Percentage job lock effect
with spouse insurance -15.85 8.12
Equations also include one-digit occupation and industry dummies, a
quartic in age, dummy variables indicating own health status, and
whether the worker is married, divorced, Black. Native American. Asian,
a high school drop out, attended but did not receive a four-year
college degree, received a four-year college degree, attended graduate
school, is a union member, and whether the observation comes from the
1990 or 1987 SIPP Panel. The equations contain a 10th-order polynomial
in the worker's tenure to control for the duration dependence. Absolute
values of asymptotic z-statistics are given in parentheses. The
predicted marginal job lock effect on the probability of turnover is
evaluated at the mean of the variables in the models, and the predicted
percentage change in the probability of turnover is measured relative
to the sample mean turnover rate (equal to 0.02947 for Columns 1-3, and
0.02947 for Column 1-3, and 0.02904 for Column 4).
Table 4. Female Turnover and Tests of Job Lock, 1987 and 1990
SIPP Panels
Panel A
Model Specification
Child
Dual Family Health
Explanatory Variables Coverage Size Problems
(1) (2) (3)
Own employer-provided -0.67 -0.492 -0.595
family health insurance (16.55) (7.08) (16.68)
Spouse employer-provided -0.148 -- --
family health insurance (4.45)
Family size -- 0.049 --
(5.55)
Family member with -- -- 0.147
health problems (1.98)
Spouse health insurance x 0.186 -- --
own health insurance (2.28)
Family size x own -- -0.054 --
employer health insurance (1.83)
Family member with health -- -- -0.24
problems x own (1.36)
employer health insurance
Family member with
health problems x spouse
employer health insurance -- -- --
Family member with
health problems x own
employer health insurance
x spouse employer health
insurance -- -- --
Number of person months 305,967 305,967 305,967
Number of persons 18,95 18,955 18,955
Marginal job lock effect
on probability of turnover 0.0058 -0.0017 -0.0074
Percentage job lock effect
on probability of turnover 17.35 -5.04 22.39
Panel A
Model Specification
Child or
Spouse Spouse Spouse
Health Work Functional
Explanatory Variables Problems Limitation Limitation
(4) (5) (6)
Own employer-provided -0.616 -0.611 -0.674
family health insurance (16.18) (17.11) (14.66)
Spouse employer-provided -- -- --
family health insurance
Family size -- -- --
Family member with 0.042 0.035 0.033
health problems (1.03) (0.480) (0.688)
Spouse health insurance x -- -- --
own health insurance
Family size x own -- -- --
employer health insurance
Family member with health 0.079 0.200 -0.013
problems x own (0.897) (1.18) (0.086)
employer health insurance
Family member with
health problems x spouse
employer health insurance -- -- --
Family member with
health problems x own
employer health insurance
x spouse employer health
insurance -- -- --
Number of person months 305,967 305,967 207,225
Number of persons 18,955 18,955 12,480
Marginal job lock effect
on probability of turnover 0.0024 0.0062 -0.0004
Percentage job lock effect
on probability of turnover 7.37 18.66 -1.22
Equations also include one-digit occupation and industry dummies, a
quartic in age, dummy variables indicating own health status, and
whether the worker is married, divorced, Black, Native American, Asian,
a high school drop out, attended but did not receive a four-year
college degree, received a four-year college degree, attended graduate
school, is a union member, and whether the observation comes from the
1990 or 1987 SIPP Panel. The equations contain a 10th-order polynomial
in the worker's tenure to control for the duration dependence. Absolute
values of asymptotic z-statistics are given in parentheses. The
predicted marginal job lock effect on the probability of turnover is
evaluated at the mean of the variables in the models, and the predicted
percentage change in the probability of turnover is measured relative
to the sample mean turnover rate (equal to 0.03318 for Columns 1-5,
and 0.03226 for Column 6).
Panel B
Model Specification
Child or
Child Spouse
Health Health
Explanatory Variables Problems Problems
(1) (2)
Own employer-provided -0.665 -0.684
family health insurance (16.05) (15.56)
Spouse employer-provided -0.148 -0.153
family health insurance (4.41) (4.32)
Family size -- --
Family member with 0.137 0.032
health problems (1.49) (0.686)
Spouse health insurance x 0.199 0.189
own health insurance (2.39) (2.08)
Family size x own employer
health insurance -- --
Family member with health -0.153 0.086
problems x own employer (0.792) (0.842)
health insurance
Family member with health 0.019 0.032
problems x spouse employer (0.122) (0.450)
health insurance
Family member with health -0.580 -0.020
problems x own employer (1.02) (0.098)
health insurance x spouse
employer health insurance
Number of person months 305,967 305,967
Number of persons 18,955 18,955
Marginal job lock effect
on probability of turnover
with no spouse insurance -0.0047 0.0027
Percentage job lock effect
on turnover with no spouse
insurance -14.24 8.02
Marginal job lock effect
with spouse insurance -0.0290 0.0020
Percentage job lock effect
with spouse insurance -87.48 6.16
Panel B
Model Specification
Spouse Spouse
Work Functional
Explanatory Variables Limitations Limitations
(3) (4)
Own employer-provided -0.680 -0.766
family health insurance (16.49) (14.56)
Spouse employer-provided -0.148 -0.207
family health insurance (4.35) (4.99)
Family size -- --
Family member with 0.017 0.020
health problems (0.170) (0.384)
Spouse health insurance x 0.199 0.261
own health insurance (2.39) (2.36)
Family size x own employer
health insurance -- --
Family member with health 0.279 0.010
problems x own employer (1.40) (0.060)
health insurance
Family member with health 0.034 -0.087
problems x spouse employer (0.232) (0.636)
health insurance
Family member with health -0.373 -0.006
problems x own employer (0.948) (0.015)
health insurance x spouse
employer health insurance
Number of person months 305,967 207,225
Number of persons 18,955 12,480
Marginal job lock effect
on probability of turnover
with no spouse insurance 0.0086 0.0003
Percentage job lock effect
on turnover with no spouse
insurance 26.02 0.94
Marginal job lock effect
with spouse insurance -0.0029 0.0001
Percentage job lock effect
with spouse insurance -8.77 0.37
Equations also include one-digit occupation and industry dummies, a
quartic in age, dummy variables indicating own health status, and
whether the worker is married, divorced, Black, Native American, Asian,
a high school drop out, attended but did not receive a four-year
college degree, received a four-year college degree, attended graduate
school, is a union member, and whether the observation comes from the
1990 or 1987 SIPP Panel. The equations contain a 10th-order polynomial
in the worker's tenure to control for the duration dependence. Absolute
values of asymptotic z-statistics are given in parentheses. The
predicted marginal job lock effect on the probability of turnover is
evaluated at the mean of the variables in the models, and the predicted
percentage change in the probability of turnover is measured relative
to the sample mean turnover rate (equal to 0.03318 for Columns 1-3, and
0.03226 for Column 4).
Table 5. Insurance Coverage, Health, and Male Wages, 1987 and
1990 SIPP Panels
Panel A
Model Specification
Child
Dual Family Health
Explanatory Variables Coverage Size Problems
(1) (2) (3)
Own employer-provided 0.254 0.187 0.238
family health insurance (21.40) (11.30) (22.31)
Spouse employer-provided 0.055 -- --
family health insurance (3.00)
Family size -- -0.028 --
(6.91)
Family member with -- -- -0.016
health problems (.304)
Spouse health insurance x -0.074 -- --
own health insurance (2.78)
Family size x own -- 0.024 --
employer health insurance (3.95)
Family member with health -- -- -0.065
problems x own (0.976)
employer health insurance
Family member with
health problems x spouse
employer health insurance -- -- --
Family member with
health problems x own
employer health insurance x
spouse employer health
insurance -- -- --
Number of persons 18,477 18,477 18,477
Panel A
Model Specification
Child or
Spouse Spouse Spouse
Health Work Functional
Explanatory Variables Problems Limitation Limitation
(4) (5) (6)
Own employer-provided 0.228 0.235 0.232
family health insurance (20.20) (22.0) (17.06)
Spouse employer-provided -- -- --
family health insurance
Family size -- -- --
Family member with -0.096 -0.086 0.043
health problems (4.82) (1.96) (2.49)
Spouse health insurance x -- -- --
own health insurance
Family size x own -- -- --
employer health insurance
Family member with health 0.053 0.049 -0.055
problems x own (2.26) (0.859) (1.82)
employer health insurance
Family member with
health problems x spouse
employer health insurance -- -- --
Family member with
health problems x own
employer health insurance x
spouse employer health
insurance -- -- --
Number of persons 18,477 18,477 12,105
Dependent variable is the natural logarithm of weekly earnings.
Equations also include one-digit occupation and industry dummies, a
quartic in age and months of tenure on the job, the natural logarithm
of hours worked per week, dummy variables indicating own health status,
and whether the worker is married, divorced, Black, Native American,
Asian, a high school drop out, attended but did not receive a four-year
college degree, received a four-year college degree, attended graduate
school, is a union member, and whether the observation comes from the
1990 or 1987 SIPP Panel. Absolute values of z-statistics are given in
parentheses. The mean of the dependent variable in Columns 1-5 is
5.819, and in Column 6 is 5.857.
Panel B
Model Specification
Child or
Child Spouse
Health Health
Explanatory Variables Problems Problems
(1) (2)
Own employer-provided 0.255 0.243
family health insurance (21.31) (19.35)
Spouse employer-provided 0.053 0.042
family health insurance (2.88) (2.06)
Family size -- --
Family member with -0.050 -0.117
health problems (0.721) (5.30)
Spouse health insurance x -0.074 -0.062
own health insurance (2.71) (2.07)
Family size X own
employer health insurance -- --
Family member health -0.037 0.070
problems x own (0.453) (2.73)
employer health insurance
Family member with 0.059 0.078
health problems x spouse (0.559) (1.92)
employer health insurance
Family member with -0.010 -0.068
health problems x own (0.061) (1.04)
employer health
insurance x spouse
employer health insurance
Number of persons 18,477 18,477
Panel B
Model Specification
Spouse Spouse
Work Functional
Explanatory Variables Limitations Limitations
(3) (4)
Own employer-provided 0.255 0.250
family health insurance (21.22) (16.42)
Spouse employer-provided 0.062 0.052
family health insurance (3.36) (2.21)
Family size -- --
Family member with -0.029 0.046
health problems (0.544) (2.51)
Spouse health insurance x -0.085 -0.087
own health insurance (3.10) (2.54)
Family size X own
employer health insurance -- --
Family member health -0.016 -0.059
problems x own (0.253) (1.89)
employer health insurance
Family member with -0.202 0.009
health problems x spouse (2.10) (0.132)
employer health insurance
Family member with 0.275 0.012
health problems x own (1.89) (0.116)
employer health
insurance x spouse
employer health insurance
Number of persons 18,477 12,105
Dependent variable is the natural logarithm of weekly earnings.
Equations also include one-digit occupation and industry dummies,
a quartic in age and months of tenure on the job, the natural logarithm
of hours worked per week, dummy variables indicating own health status,
and whether the worker is married, divorced, Black, Native American,
Asian, a high school drop out, attended but did not receive a four-year
college degree, received a four-year college degree, attended graduate
school, is a union member, and whether the observation comes from the
1990 or 1987 SIPP Panel. Absolute values of t-statistics are given
in parentheses. The mean of the dependent variable in Columns 1-5 is
5.819, and in Column 6 is 5.857.
Table 6. Insurance Coverage, Health, and Female Wages, 1987 and
1990 SIPP Panels
Panel A
Model Specification
Child
Dual Family Health
Explanatory Variables Coverage Size Problems
(1) (2) (3)
Own employer-provided 0.191 0.158 0.189
family health insurance (14.81) (7.86) (17.06)
Spouse employer-provided 0.027 -- --
family health insurance (2.06)
Family size -- -0.08 --
(6.64)
Family member with health -- -- -0.141
problems (4.26)
Spouse health insurance x 0.035 -- --
own health insurance (1.50)
Family size x own employer -- 0.017 --
health insurance (2.09)
Family member health -- -- 0.168
problems x own (2.91)
employer health insurance
Family member with
health problems x spouse
employer health insurance -- -- --
Family member with health
problems x own employer
health insurance x spouse
employer health insurance -- -- --
Number of persons 18,955 18,955 18,955
Panel A
Model Specification
Child Or
Spouse Spouse Spouse
Health Work Functional
Explanatory Variables Problems Limitation Limitation
(4) (5) (6)
Own employer-provided 0.180 0.192 0.194
family health insurance (15.53) (17.35) (13.95)
Spouse employer-provided -- -- --
family health insurance
Family size -- -- --
Family member with health -0.136 -0.095 0.097
problems (7.69) (3.07) (5.39)
Spouse health insurance x -- -- --
own health insurance
Family size x own employer -- -- --
health insurance
Family member health 0.101 0.049 -0.069
problems x own (3.51) (0.890) (1.75)
employer health insurance
Family member with
health problems x spouse
employer health insurance -- -- --
Family member with health
problems x own employer
health insurance x spouse
employer health insurance -- -- --
Number of persons 18,955 18,955 12,480
Dependent variable is the natural logarithm of weekly earnings.
Equations also include one-digit occupation and industry dummies.
a quartic in age and months of tenure on the job, the natural logarithm
of hours worked per week, dummy variables indicating own health status,
and whether the worker is married, divorced, Black, Native American,
Asian, a high school drop out, attended but did not receive a four-year
college degree, received a four-year college degree, attended graduate
school, is a union member, and whether the observation comes from the
1990 or 1987 SIPP Panel. Absolute values of t-statistics are given in
parentheses. The mean of the dependent variable in Columns 1-5 is
5.340, and in Column 6 is 5.414.
Panel B
Model Specification
Child or
Child Spouse
Health Health
Explanatory Variables Problems Problems
(1) (2)
Own employer-provided 0.185 0.173
family health insurance (14.10) (12.67)
Spouse employer-provided 0.024 0.014
family health insurance (1.82) (0.984)
Family size -- --
Family member with -0.178 -0.169
health problems (4.12) (8.12)
Spouse health insurance x 0.042 0.048
own health insurance (1.74) (1.91)
Family size x own employer
health insurance -- --
Family member health 0.227 0.131
problems x own (3.33) (3.93)
employer health insurance
Family member with 0.089 0.090
health problems x spouse (1.34) (3.02)
employer health insurance
Family member with health -0.192 -0.090
problems x own employer (1.40) (1.37)
health insurance x spouse
employer health insurance
Number of persons 18,955 18,955
Panel B
Model Specification
Spouse Spouse
Work Functional
Explanatory Variables Limitations Limitations
(3) (4)
Own employer-provided 0.188 0.198
family health insurance (14.39) (12.04)
Spouse employer-provided 0.020 0.033
family health insurance (1.52) (1.96)
Family size -- --
Family member with -0.172 0.092
health problems (3.78) (4.70)
Spouse health insurance x 0.038 0.020
own health insurance (1.57) (0.638)
Family size x own employer
health insurance -- --
Family member health 0.114 -0.058
problems x own (1.63) (1.32)
employer health insurance
Family member with 0.146 0.064
health problems x spouse (2.35) (1.28)
employer health insurance
Family member with health -0.101 -0.087
problems x own employer (0.849) (0.848)
health insurance x spouse
employer health insurance
Number of persons 18,955 12,480
Dependent variable is the natural logarithm of weekly earnings.
Equations also include one-digit occupation and industry dummies, a
quartic in age and months of tenure on the job, the natural logarithm
of hours worked per week, dummy variables indicating own health status,
and whether the worker is married, divorced, Black, Native American,
Asian, a high school drop out, attended but did not receive a four-year
college degree, received a four-year college degree, attended graduate
school, is a union member, and whether the observation comes from the
1990 or 1987 SIPP Panel. Absolute values of t-statistics are given in
parentheses. The mean of the dependent variable in Columns 1-5 is
5.340, and in Column 6 is 5.414.
We thank Melissa melissa: see bee balm. Huffman Huffman may refer to several things, such as surnames, place names which are derived from these surnames (mainly German and sometimes Danish), and other things, names of which are derived from these surnames. It is related to the names Hoffman, Hoffmann, and Hofmann. and Shannon Shannon, principal river of the Republic of Ireland and longest (c.240 mi/390 km) in the British Isles. It rises near Cuilcagh Mt., NW Co. Cavan, and flows S through the Central Plain into Co. Limerick, where it turns west in a broad estuary (c. Beaven for valuable research assistance. The U.S. Agency for Health Care Policy and Research provided financial support (grant R01 HS08188). We would also like to thank two anonymous Nameless. See anonymous post and anonymous Web surfing. referees for extensive, helpful comments. Shortly after this paper was accepted for publication, Mark Berger Professor Mark C. Berger (July 24,1955 – April 30, 2003), was the director of The Center for Business and Economic Research at the University of Kentucky until his death at age 47. He was also a Fullbright Scholar at University College Dublin. died unexpectedly. Along with many others, his two co-authors will dearly miss him. (1) Monheit and Cooper (1994) and Kapur (1998) provide excellent reviews of the literature. Among the most recent papers, Gilleskie and Lutz (1999) estimate models of male job mobility that depend in part on the presence of employer-provided health insurance. They find no evidence of job lock among married men and small estimates of job lock among unmarried men. Anderson (1998) examines both the Madrian proxies for job lock (pregnancy, spouse coverage, and family size) and own work limitations. She finds that some of the earlier job lock results may have been due to "job push," the movement of workers in need of health insurance coverage out of jobs that do not offer coverage. Slade n. 1. A little dell or valley; a flat piece of low, moist ground. 2. The sole of a plow. (2000) examines the determinants of health insurance coverage among job changers
The Changers are a fictional group of anti-hero published by Wildstorm an imprint of DC Comics. , including job mobility, finding a significant effect of job mobility on employer health insurance coverage. He concludes from this result that earlier findings of a negative effect of employer health insurance coverage on job mobility may have been due to heterogeneity. (2) Survey evidence and estimates based on existing studies prior to the passage of HIPAA put the number of job-locked workers in the millions (e.g., New York New York, state, United States New York, Middle Atlantic state of the United States. It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Atlantic Ocean (E), New Jersey and Pennsylvania (S), Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Canadian province of Times 1991; U.S. General Accounting Office 1995). See Atchinson and Fox (1997), U.S. General Accounting Office (1998), and Berger et al. (1999) for additional discussion of HIPAA. (3) The Employee Benefits Research Institute (1998) survey was conducted in February February: see month. 1998. Except for Kentucky Kentucky, state, United States Kentucky (kəntŭk`ē, kĭn–), one of the so-called border states of the S central United States. It is bordered by West Virginia and Virginia (E); Tennessee (S); the Mississippi R. , where the legislature legislature, representative assembly empowered to enact statute law. Generally the representatives who compose a legislature are constitutionally elected by a broad spectrum of the population. was not meeting until later in the year, guaranteed access provisions for individual coverage for those leaving group A leaving group is an atom or group of atoms that detaches from a chemical substance. The remaining molecule or fragment remaining is known as the residual or main part. The term leaving group is dependent on the context of the statement. coverage was to be implemented no later than January January: see month. 1, 1998 (U.S. General Accounting Office 1998). HIPAA limited preexisting conditions exclusions by limiting the period in which group plan issuers could limit benefits arising from preexisting conditions to no more than 12 months following the effective date of coverage (U.S. General Accounting Office 1998). Individuals losing their group coverage are guaranteed access to individual coverage under HIPAA provided that they had 18 months of creditable cred·it·a·ble adj. 1. Deserving of often limited praise or commendation: The student made a creditable effort on the essay. 2. Worthy of belief: a creditable story. coverage with no gaps of more than 63 consecutive days; have exhausted COBRA cobra, name for African and Asian snakes of the family Elapidae that are equipped with inflatable neck hoods. The family also includes the African mambas, the Asian kraits, the New World coral snakes and a large number of Australian snakes. or other continuation continuation - continuation passing style coverage; have not been eligible for any other group coverage, Medicare Medicare, national health insurance program in the United States for persons aged 65 and over and the disabled. It was established in 1965 with passage of the Social Security Amendments and is now run by the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services. , or Medicaid Medicaid, national health insurance program in the United States for low-income persons; established in 1965 with passage of the Social Security Amendments and now run by the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services. ; and have not lost group coverage because of nonpayment Non`pay´ment n. 1. Neglect or failure to pay. Noun 1. nonpayment - act of failing to meet a financial obligation nonremittal, default failure - an act that fails; "his failure to pass the test" of premiums or fraud (U.S. General Accounting Office 1998). (4) Of course, job-locked workers may suffer in other ways besides lower wages, such as a worse pension plan or less favorable fa·vor·a·ble adj. 1. Advantageous; helpful: favorable winds. 2. Encouraging; propitious: a favorable diagnosis. 3. working conditions. (5) Graber and Madrian (1997) examine earnings differences for workers leaving their jobs with and without health insurance continuation coverage. They find that the presence of continuation coverage significantly increases earnings after separation. However, they do not attempt to examine whether earnings are higher or lower among workers who could be currently job locked. In related work, Gruber (1994) finds that the costs of mandated maternity benefits maternity benefit n → subsidio por maternidad maternity benefit n → prestation f de maternité maternity benefit maternity n are largely shifted onto the targeted group in the form of reduced wages, consistent with a wage-fringe benefit tradeoff. (6) Other data sets used in the literature include the National Medical Expenditure Survey (NMES), the Panel Survey of Income Dynamics (PSID PSID Panel Study of Income Dynamics PSID Panel Study on Income Dynamics PSID Pounds per Square Inch Differential PSID Photon Stimulated Ion Desorption PSID Product Support Integration Directorate PSID Private System Identification ), and the National Longitudinal lon·gi·tu·di·nal adj. Running in the direction of the long axis of the body or any of its parts. Survey of Youth (NLSY NLSY National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (USA) ). Madrian (1994), Cooper and Monheit (1993), and Kapur (1998) use NMES, which interviewed people four times over the course of one year. The NMES is primarily a health survey, with limited labor market information. Holtz-Eakin (1994) uses the PSID. The PSID health insurance information is severely limited in that coverage and the source of coverage of all family members cannot be determined. Mobility measures are limited to whether the individual has changed jobs at annual intervals. More recent studies (Anderson 1998; Gilleskie and Lutz 1999; and Slade 2000) have used the NLSY. These studies have not examined differences in job mobility and wages by health status and the presence of employer-provided health insurance. Another potential drawback DRAWBACK, com. law. An allowance made by the government to merchants on the reexportation of certain imported goods liable to duties, which, in some cases, consists of the whole; in others, of a part of the duties which had been paid upon the importation. of the NLSY is that it covers a fairly narrow age group of young workers, who may be less likely to be affected by job lock than are older workers. (7) Penrod (1995) and Buchmueller and Valletta (1996) have also used the SIPP. Penrod (1995) utilizes the detailed health information in the SIPP but does not take advantage of the information on job tenure. Buchmueller and Valletta (1996) control for tenure but do not include any of the many health status variables that are available from the SIPP. (8) We include all separations in our measure of h. Although Madrian (1994, p. 36) reports results using only voluntary separations, she states "that the results are very similar when the dependent variable equals one for any job change, voluntary or involuntary involuntary adj. or adv. without intent, will, or choice. Participation in a crime is involuntary if forced by immediate threat to life or health of oneself or one's loved ones, and will result in dismissal or acquittal. INVOLUNTARY. ." Further, Barron Barron may refer to
adj. On even terms with by payment or requital: I am finally quits with the loan. [Middle English, probably alteration (influenced by Medieval Latin are induced induced /in·duced/ (in-dldbomacst´) 1. produced artificially. 2. produced by induction. induced, adj artificially caused to occur. induced induction. by the employer. In other words Adv. 1. in other words - otherwise stated; "in other words, we are broke" put differently , employees quit in anticipation The performance of an act or obligation before it is legally due. In patent law, the publication of the existence of an invention that has already been patented or has a patent pending, of being discharged DISCHARGED. Released, or liberated from custody. It is not equivalent to acquitted in a declaration for a malicious prosecution. 2 Yeates, 475 2 Term Rep. 231; 1 Strange, 114; Doug. 205 3 Leon. 100. or in response to employer dissatisfaction with job performance. Thus, we include all separations in our analysis, rather than attempt to classify clas·si·fy tr.v. clas·si·fied, clas·si·fy·ing, clas·si·fies 1. To arrange or organize according to class or category. 2. To designate (a document, for example) as confidential, secret, or top secret. a given separation as voluntary or involuntary. (9) This is similar to the approach and reasoning used by Kaput ka·put also ka·putt adj. Informal Incapacitated or destroyed. [German kaputt, from French capot, not having won a single trick at piquet, possibly from Provençal. (1998). (10) See Lancaster Lancaster, city, England Lancaster (lăng`kəstər), city (1991 pop. 43,902) and district, county seat of Lancashire, NW England, on the Lune River. (1990) for a discussion of hazard model estimation in the presence of stock sampling. (11) We include only one employment spell per worker in our analysis: either the spell that was in progress at the beginning of the panel, or the first spell that began during the survey period. (12) We consulted with insurance agents who write health insurance policies for businesses and carefully read the instructions contained in the health insurance administration manuals issued to agents. This allowed us to evaluate the SIPP respondents In the context of marketing research, a representative sample drawn from a larger population of people from whom information is collected and used to develop or confirm marketing strategy. as if they were applying for health insurance coverage with a new employer. Alan A`lan´ n. 1. A wolfhound. Ramsay Ram·say , Allan 1686-1758. Scottish poet noted for his patriotic and pastoral works, including the drama The Gentle Shepherd (1725). Ramsay, James Andrew Brown. was especially helpful in providing assistance. (13) Madrian (1994) also uses pregnancy status as a measure of job lock, and finds evidence of lower mobility associated with pregnancy. We do not examine the pregnancy case. It is not surprising that those with a pregnant wife are less likely to change jobs. It is also a temporary condition, rather than a longer term chronic problem. (14) According to according to prep. 1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians. 2. In keeping with: according to instructions. 3. our calculations from the 1993 April Current Population Survey Employee Benefit Supplement, 60.2% of covered workers have both employee and family coverage, whereas 39.2% have only employee coverage. This translates into a 58.7% employer-provided insurance coverage rate, and a 35,4% employer-provided family coverage rate. The 35.4% family coverage rate is very similar to the coverage rate reported in Table 2. (15) Kapur (1998, p. 289, footnote Text that appears at the bottom of a page that adds explanation. It is often used to give credit to the source of information. When accumulated and printed at the end of a document, they are called "endnotes." 8) also mentions estimates of her models excluding own health conditions. (16) The own health status indicator variable is defined in a similar fashion as the spouse health variable described above. In particular, this variable takes on the value of one if the individual reports that he or she has a condition that limits the kind or amount of work, rates his or her health as "fair" or "poor," needs help with personal activities, or spent at least one night in the hospital during the previous year. (17) Using 1984 SIPP data and a dual coverage measure, Buchmueller and Valletta (1996) find evidence consistent with job lock for married women. Kapur (1998) reconsiders Madrian's family size (Madrian 1994) results mmad finds, using the same NME NME Name NME Enemy NME New Musical Express NME Neisseria Meningitidis NME New Molecular Entities (US FDA New Drug Approval reports) NME Network Management Ethernet NME New Music Express data after correcting various problems, that the job lock effect is insignificant. (18) Anderson (1998) also finds an insignificant effect of the interaction of health conditions and health insurance in her employment hazards
Hazards is an independent, union-friendly magazine based in Sheffield, England, which has won major international awards. . She cites measurement error in the health conditions variable, a self-report of whether own health limits amount or type of work. We use several measures of health conditions of the spouse, including work limitations, and find insignificant effects. Although some may be affected by measurement error, even those less likely to be affected, such as functional limitations, produce insignificant effects. And many are the wrong sign, which would be inconsistent with job lock even if there were measurement error biasing the coefficients toward zero. However, this is not the main thrust of Anderson (1998). She is more interested in examining job push, whereas we are morn concerned with identifying whether, on net, job lock exists in general. There may well be some job push in the labor market, but we do not try to separate it out in this paper. (19) Kapur (1998) adopts another strategy for the estimation of Equations 1 and 2. She estimates similar equations for the sample of those with employer-provided health insurance (hi = 1) in addition to the full sample. This eliminates the interaction term from Equation 1 and reduces the number of interactions in Equation 2. When we estimate Equations 1 and 2 for those with employer-provided health insurance, the results are in general qualitatively similar to those reported here: we do not find any statistically significant job lock effects in the predicted direction for either men or women. (20) The fact that the family size results disappear when a subsample sub·sam·ple n. A sample drawn from a larger sample. tr.v. sub·sam·pled, sub·sam·pling, sub·sam·ples To take a subsample from (a larger sample). of the data is used in the estimation may also suggest a role for worker heterogeneity. (21) Slade (2000) makes a similar point about "married men who are in good jobs and who have a low propensity to change jobs." (22) A potential concern is that some of the health conditions measures and interactions have low frequency and may produce estimates with low power, and thus low statistical significance. Although the job lock estimates in the hazard models are mostly insignificant, this is not the case in the wage estimation. In several cases, the coefficients estimating job lock effects are significant, but are of the wrong sign. Lack of power does not seem to be a problem in the wage equation estimation, and so we would be reluctant to conclude that it is a problem in the hazard model estimation. References Anderson, Patricia M. 1998. The effect of employer-provided health insurance on job mobility: Job-lock or job-push. Unpublished paper, Dartmouth College Dartmouth College, at Hanover, N.H.; coeducational; chartered 1769, opened 1770, the ninth colonial college (see Wheelock, Eleazar). Originally a men's college, Dartmouth began admitting women in 1972. . Atchinson, Brian The name Brian (sometimes spelled Bryan) comes from an Irish backround. It is of Celtic origin and its meaning may be "hill" or "strong, noble, and high"[1]. K., and Daniel Daniel, book of the Bible Daniel, book of the Bible. It combines "court" tales, perhaps originating from the 6th cent. B.C., and a series of apocalyptic visions arising from the time of the Maccabean emergency (167–164 B.C. M. Fox. 1997. The politics of the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act. Health Affairs 16:146-50. Barton BARTON, old English law. The demesne land of a manor; a farm distinct from the mansion. , John M., and Mark A. Loewenstein. 1985. On employer-specific Information and internal labor markets According to Doeringer and Piore (1), internal labor markets are an administrative unit within a firm in which pricing and allocation of labor is governed by a set of administrative rules and procedures. . Southern Economic Journal 52:431-45. Berger, Mark C., and Dan A. Black. 1998. The duration of Medicaid spells: An analysis using flow and stock samples. Review of Economics and Statistics 80:667-75. Berger, Mark C., Dan A. Black, Frank A. Scott, and Amitabh Chandra
In Hinduism, Chandra (lit. "shining)[1] is a lunar deity and a Graha. Chandra is also identified with the Vedic Lunar deity Soma (lit. . 1999. Health insurance coverage of the unemployed: COBRA and the potential effects of Kassebaum-Kennedy. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 18:430-48. Buchmueller, Thomas (language) Thomas - A language compatible with the language Dylan(TM). Thomas is NOT Dylan(TM). The first public release of a translator to Scheme by Matt Birkholz, Jim Miller, and Ron Weiss, written at Digital Equipment Corporation's Cambridge Research Laboratory runs C., and Robert Robert, Henry Martyn 1837-1923. American army engineer and parliamentary authority. He designed the defenses for Washington, D.C., during the Civil War and later wrote Robert's Rules of Order (1876). Noun 1. G. Valletta. 1996. The effects of employer-provided health insurance on worker mobility. Industrial and Labor Relations Review Industrial and Labor Relations Review is a publication of the Cornell University School of Industrial and Labor Relations. It is an interdisciplinary journal publishing original research on all aspects of labor relations. 49:439-55. Cooper, Philip Philip, tetrarch of Ituraea Philip, d. A.D. 34, tetrarch of Ituraea, son of Herod the Great. He was perhaps the ablest of the Herod dynasty. He is mentioned in the Gospel of St. Luke. F., and Alan C. Monheit. 1993. Does employment-related health insurance inhibit inhibit /in·hib·it/ (in-hib´it) to retard, arrest, or restrain. in·hib·it v. 1. To hold back; restrain. 2. job mobility? Inquiry 30: 400-16. Cox, D. R. 1972. Regression regression, in psychology: see defense mechanism. regression In statistics, a process for determining a line or curve that best represents the general trend of a data set. models with life tables. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society The Journal of the Royal Statistical Society is a series of three peer-reviewed statistics journals published by Blackwell Publishing for the London-based Royal Statistical Society. Series B 34:187-220. Employee Benefit Research Institute (EBRI). 1998. Health insurance portability and job lock: Findings from the 1998 Health Confidence Survey. EBRI Notes No. 8. Farber, Henry S. 1994. The analysis of inter-firm worker mobility. Journal of Labor Economics The Journal of Labor Economics, published by the University of Chicago Press presents international research examining issues affecting the economy as well as social and private behavior. 12:554-93. Gilleskie, Donna B., and Byron F. Lutz. 1999. The impact of employer-provided health insurance on dynamic employment transitions. NBER NBER National Bureau of Economic Research (Cambridge, MA) NBER Nittany and Bald Eagle Railroad Company Working Paper No, 7307. Gruber, Jonathan Jonathan (jŏn`əthən) [short for Jehonathan, Heb.,=Yahweh has given]. 1 In the Bible, Saul's son and David's friend, both killed at the battle of Mt. Gilboa. David showed kindness to his son Mephibosheth. . 1994. The incidence of mandated maternity benefits. American Economic Review 84:622-41. Gruber, Jonathan, and Brigitte Brigitte is a female given name of Celtic origin. Variants Some languages spell it with two of the letter "g". People
Graber, Jonathan, and Brigitte C. Madrian. 1997. Employment separation and health insurance coverage. Journal of Public Economics 66:349-82. Heckman, James James, person in the Bible James, in the Gospel of St. Luke, kinsman of St. Jude. The original does not specify the relationship. James, rivers, United States James. , and Burton Burton can mean: Places Australia
n. (used with a sing. verb) Application of mathematical and statistical techniques to economics in the study of problems, the analysis of data, and the development and testing of theories and models. duration analysis. Journal of Econometrics econometrics, technique of economic analysis that expresses economic theory in terms of mathematical relationships and then tests it empirically through statistical research. 24:63-132. Holtz-Eakin, Douglas Douglas, city, Isle of Man Douglas, city (1991 pop. 19,950), capital of the Isle of Man, Great Britain. It is a popular resort, connected by rail to Ramsey and Port Erin, on the Irish Sea. Tourism is the chief industry. . 1994. Health insurance provision and labor market efficiency in the United States and Germany Germany (jûr`mənē), Ger. Deutschland, officially Federal Republic of Germany, republic (2005 est. pop. 82,431,000), 137,699 sq mi (356,733 sq km). . In Social protection versus economic flexibility: Is there a tradeoff?, edited ed·it tr.v. ed·it·ed, ed·it·ing, ed·its 1. a. To prepare (written material) for publication or presentation, as by correcting, revising, or adapting. b. by Rebecca Rebecca or Rebekah (both: rēbĕk`ə), wife of Isaac and mother of Jacob. One day, as was her custom, she drew water at the city well; while there she showed kindness to Eliezer, Abraham's servant. Blank Lacking something essential to fulfillment or completeness; unrestricted or open. A space left empty for the insertion of one or more words or marks in a written document that will effectuate its meaning or make it legally operative. and Richard Freeman  This article or section is an autobiography, or has been extensively edited by the subject, and may not conform to Wikipedia's NPOV policy.Please see the relevant discussion on the . . Chicago Chicago, city, United States Chicago (shĭkä`gō, shĭkô`gō), city (1990 pop. 2,783,726), seat of Cook co., NE Ill., on Lake Michigan; inc. 1837. : University of Chicago Press The University of Chicago Press is the largest university press in the United States. It is operated by the University of Chicago and publishes a wide variety of academic titles, including The Chicago Manual of Style, dozens of academic journals, including , pp. 157-88. Kapur, Kanika. 1998. The impact of health on job mobility: A measure of job lock. Industrial and Labor Relations Review 51:282-98. Lancaster, Tony. 1990. The econometric analysis of transition data. Cambridge Cambridge, city, Canada Cambridge (kām`brĭj), city (1991 pop. 92,772), S Ont., Canada, on the Grand River, NW of Hamilton. It was formed in 1973 with the amalgamation of Galt, Hespeler, and Preston, all founded in the early 19th cent. , UK: Cambridge University Press Cambridge University Press (known colloquially as CUP) is a publisher given a Royal Charter by Henry VIII in 1534, and one of the two privileged presses (the other being Oxford University Press). . Madrian, Brigitte C. 1994. Employment-based health insurance and job mobility: Is there evidence of job-lock? Quarterly Journal of Economics The Quarterly Journal of Economics, or QJE, is an economics journal published by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and edited at Harvard University's Department of Economics. Its current editors are Robert J. Barro, Edward L. Glaeser and Lawrence F. Katz. 109:27-54. Monheit, Alan C., and Philip F. Cooper. 1994. Health insurance and job mobility: Theory and evidence. Industrial and Labor Relations Review 48:68-85. New York Times. 1991. Health benefits found to deter job switching. 6 September September: see month. , p. 1. Penrod, John R. 1995. Health care costs, health insurance and job mobility. Unpublished paper, University of Michigan (body, education) University of Michigan - A large cosmopolitan university in the Midwest USA. Over 50000 students are enrolled at the University of Michigan's three campuses. The students come from 50 states and over 100 foreign countries. . Slade, Eric ERIC Educational Research Information Clearinghouse ERIC Educational Resources Information Center ERIC ERISA Industry Committee ERIC Epidemiologic Research and Information Center (Durham, NC) P. 2000. The effects of job mobility on health insurance coverage. Unpublished paper, Johns Hopkins University Johns Hopkins University, mainly at Baltimore, Md. Johns Hopkins in 1867 had a group of his associates incorporated as the trustees of a university and a hospital, endowing each with $3.5 million. Daniel C. , School of Hygiene hygiene, science of preserving and promoting the health of both the individual and the community. It has many aspects: personal hygiene (proper living habits, cleanliness of body and clothing, healthful diet, a balanced regimen of rest and exercise); domestic hygiene and Public Health, Department of Health Policy and Management. U.S. General Accounting Office. 1995. Health insurance portability: Reform could ensure continued coverage for up to 25 million Americans (Doc. No. GAO/HEHS-95-257). Washington Washington, town, England Washington, town (1991 pop. 48,856), Sunderland metropolitan district, NE England. Washington was designated one of the new towns in 1964 to alleviate overpopulation in the Tyneside-Wearside area. , DC: U.S. General Accounting Office. U.S. General Accounting Office. 1998. Health insurance standards: New federal law creates challenges for consumers, insurers, regulators (Doc. No. GAO/HEHS-98-67), Washington, DC: U.S. General Accounting Office. Mark C. Berger, * Dan A. Black, ([dagger]) and Frank A. Scott ([double dagger double dagger n. A reference mark (  ) used in printing and writing. Also called diesis.Noun 1. ]) * Department of Economics, The University of Kentucky The University of Kentucky, also referred to as UK, is a public, co-educational university located in Lexington, Kentucky. , Lexington Lexington. 1 City (1990 pop. 225,366), seat of Fayette co., N central Ky., in the heart of the bluegrass region; inc. 1832, made coextensive with Fayette co. 1974. , KY 40506, USA. ([dagger]) Center for Policy Research, Syracuse University Syracuse University, main campus at Syracuse, N.Y.; coeducational; chartered 1870, opened 1871. Syracuse is noted for its research programs in government and industry; facilities include the Center for Science and Technology, the Newhouse Communications Center, and , Syracuse Syracuse, city, Italy Syracuse (sĭr`əky  s, –kyz), Ital. Siracusa, city (1991 pop. , NY 13244; E-mail danblack@maxwell Maxwell is a common Scottish or Irish name that may refer to: People
(networking) edu - ("education") The top-level domain for educational establishments in the USA (and some other countries). E.g. "mit.edu". The UK equivalent is "ac.uk". . ([double dagger]) Department of Economics. The University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506, USA; E-mail fscott@uky.edu; corresponding author. Received April 2001; accepted July July: see month. 2003. |
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