Introducing second graders to media literacy.

Abstract

In this paper, we explore the impact of a five-week media literacy curriculum offered to three classes of second grade students (n=51) during March-April 2003. The curriculum included lesson plans pertaining to 1.) news media, 2.) media violence, 3.) advertising, 4.) gender stereotypes and fairytales, and 5.) media production. Analyses of students' weekly journal entries and videotaped verbal responses to the curriculum are included in this report. The findings suggest that individuals as young as seven-years-old, when exposed to a media literacy curriculum, can take a more critical stance toward mass media.

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Media literacy, often referred to as media education, is the ability to "decode, evaluate, analyze and produce" media in a wide array of forms (Aufderheide, 2001, p. 79). An interdisciplinary endeavor by nature, media literacy encourages inquiry-based learning and the development of critical thinking. Kurfiss (1988) describes critical thinking as what occurs when educators pose problems or questions as an entry point into a topic (such as media). In an effort to extend our knowledge of media literacy beyond University walls, we developed a five-week curriculum, offering lesson plans to three second-grade classrooms (51 students) in a rural, predominantly low-income, public elementary school in a New England town. Based on preliminary meetings with the school counselor, we decided that our five sessions, each 30 minutes in duration, would cover the following topics: 1.) news media, 2.) media violence, 3.) advertising, 4.) gender stereotypes and fairytales, and 5.) media production.

Theoretical Framework

Two philosophies of media literacy, the interventionist approach and the cultural studies approach, guided our curriculum development and pedagogical style. The interventionist camp constructs media literacy as an attempt to shield individuals (particularly children) from an army of negative behavioral, affective and cognitive media effects while emphasizing the development of critical thinking (Masterman, 2001). Meanwhile, the cultural studies orientation conceptualizes media literacy as an empowering tool through which knowledge and critical thinking skills are developed while acknowledging the pleasure derived from mediated experiences (Lewis & Jhally, 1998). The interventionist framework employs a top-down pedagogical style through which educators offer information, pose questions, and determine the desired outcomes of a media literacy program. However, the cultural studies perspective involves a student-centered approach, encouraging multiple sites of knowledge while emphasizing students' ability to interpret, negotiate and question the meanings of media messages (Christ & Potter, 1998).

Despite the contrasting versions of media literacy, both camps share common ground, leading us to believe that the perspectives can, and should, compliment rather than compete against each other. It should be emphasized that the general structures and overall goals of media literacy put forth by the interventionist and cultural studies camps involve "asking questions about what you watch, see, and read" (Hobbs, 2001, p. 25), thereby encouraging critical thinking about the media. Hence, we based our curriculum and pedagogical approach on both traditions, thereby encouraging active learning through two-way discussion while foregrounding both positive and negative aspects of media.

Curriculum Goals

Based on the aforementioned theoretical constructs, we put forth the following goals: (1) To provide a judgment-free space for second graders to discuss their opinions, emotions, experiences, pleasures and frustrations with various media; (2) To introduce students to concepts pertaining to mass media, including (but not limited to): media, commercial, deceptive advertising, consequences, etc.; (3) To produce general awareness of mass media forms and content and foster a sense that media messages are constructed for economic, political, and aesthetic reasons, among others; (4) To encourage students to think critically about media and ask questions in regards to what they see or hear in their media landscape. It should be stressed that "critical thinking," defined by Ennis (1987) as "reasonable, reflective thinking that is focused on what to believe or do," (p. 9) is at the core of our goals. Thus, for the purpose of this study, we define critical thinking as the process of challenging underlying assumptions, interpreting and evaluating messages, imagining and exploring alternatives, and developing reflective criticism.

The Media Literacy Curriculum

Session One: Introduction/News and Current Events

Session One served several functions; first, we explored the concept of "media" and the students' familiarity with the term and what it represents. We informed the students that we would be concentrating on the news media for the day. We deemed this an important topic, as research suggests that news exposure can evoke fright reactions among children (Smith & Wilson, 2002). Students were asked to complete a worksheet, "Get the News," adapted from the Red Cross website (www.redcross.ca/cmslib/general/5-7eng.pdf), to focus on how information is gathered using various media. We then drew three faces (happy, sad, and frightened) on a sheet of paper. Pointing to each face, we asked students to offer examples of news stories that prompted each of these reactions. This exercise incited a discussion on how news stories can shape emotions. Before concluding, we provided students with a journal and asked them to write about a positive news story. The goal of this assignment was to help students realize that not all news is "bad" news.

Session Two: Media Violence

Session Two introduced the concept of media violence. After discussing this term, we encouraged students to discuss what violent acts might look like, with an impressive range of responses. To illustrate the excessive violence in some children's media, we showed a one-minute "wrestling" scene from the highly popular Shrek. Before playing the clip, we asked students to count aloud each violent act they saw. To their surprise, they had reached anywhere between 15 and 25 violent acts by the clip's completion. We followed this activity by posing questions such as, "Were you surprised by the number of violent acts that you counted?" We then segued into the issue of "consequences." We explained that the viewer sees acts of physical violence, yet the viewer doesn't see the consequences; i.e., Did the character have to go to the hospital? We then discussed ways that both mediated and real life problems can be solved without violence. To conclude, we asked students to write in their journals about a violent television show they had seen and how the characters could have resolved their problems without violence.

Session Three: Advertising

Session Three explored the concept of advertising; in fact, we focused on one type of advertising that heavily targets children: cereal products. We showed a Reese's Peanut Butter Puffs Cereal commercial to discuss the attention-grabbing techniques used by advertisers such as music, imagery, and the presence of child actors enjoying the cereal. Students were asked to think of popular slogans (e.g., Tony the Tiger's "They'rrrrr Grrrreeat) and spokes-characters (e.g., Toucan Sam) used to promote cereal. We explained that these were also techniques to promote purchases. Following, we showed students a box of Post's Oreo O's cereal so they could critically examine the packaging. We examined the graphics (e.g., Sponge Bob) and text (e.g., "FREE Nightspyer," etc.), discussing how the package functioned as an advertisement. To conclude, we asked students to consider how they might question other advertisements. We encouraged students to ask themselves, "What techniques are being used to grasp my attention and make me want the product?" We also asked students to think of ways to voice their frustrations about products that didn't live up to the quality conveyed in commercials. Many students suggested that they could write letters or send e-mails product "makers."

Session Four: Gender Stereotypes and Fairytales

Session Four explored the issue of gender stereotypes and fairytales. We sought to address the fact that many traditional fairytales (e.g., Cinderella, etc.) depict females as beautiful and in need of rescuing, while male characters are often portrayed as fearless heroes who save female characters. In turn, we hoped to challenge these stereotypes and convey alternative storylines. To begin, we established common character types in fairytales including princes and princesses. To challenge these stereotypical characters, we read aloud Robert Munsch's The Paper Bag Princess (1980), a twist on the classic fairytale that shares the story of Princess Elizabeth and Prince Ronald. When a dragon captures Ronald, Elizabeth outwits the dragon and saves him; however, in the process, Elizabeth rains her clothes and Ronald chastises her unsightly attire. In turn, Elizabeth realizes that her prince is more of a toad and leaves Ronald to live independently. Following the story, we posed broad questions to the class, comparing and contrasting Munsch's characters with those portrayed in traditional fairytales. For their final journal entry, we asked students to consider who saves whom in their favorite fairytales and encouraged students to think of alternatives endings.

Session Five: Media Production

In Session Five, we engaged the students in a media production exercise. We determined that a fruitful activity would be to produce a "talk show" segment, where we (as facilitators) would serve as rotating co-hosts and students would act as guests, thereby allowing us to ask media literacy-related questions and gage students' learning. Moreover, this offered the students an opportunity to "make media" and view themselves on camera as well as to see the choices that the person behind the camera makes. We encouraged the students to assist in the production process (e.g., focusing the lens, etc.).

Means of Assessment

Arguably, identification of specific outcomes and assessment of the effectiveness of media literacy are required for extensive implementation of media literacy both in and out of the classroom (Christ & Potter, 1998). Assessing the effectiveness of a media literacy curriculum is not an easy task. In fact, there is little discussion of the outcomes ideally associated with media literacy, although research is steadily growing (e.g., Hobbs & Frost, 2001; Irving & Berel, 2001; and Scharrer, in press). In order to evaluate our program, we conceptualized two assessment tools, the Weekly Media Journal and the Media Production Activity.

Weekly Media Journals

The use of weekly media journals is one way we assessed the knowledge and progress of students. At the end of each session, we posed a question based on the lesson for the students to respond in their journals, as mentioned in each of the above sections. Of the 51 student journals collected, 41 (80.4%) demonstrated critical thinking skills (e.g., television violence is fake, commercials aim to persuade) and/or use of the concepts or terms (e.g., commercials) presented during our sessions. Below are excerpts from the students' journals, transcribed as they appeared including all invented spelling and grammar constructions. Students are identified with pseudonyms.

* Sara: fairytale boes don't have to save the Girls. Girls don't have to save the boes. No won have to save ane bode.

* Brett: Shrek was fighting with fargads men. They could hav talked it over.

* Esteban: I remembered violence the best. I watch a lot of violant movies. I don't get scared. I know there fake.

* James: Comarshels try to make you biy things. They make you mad. Their things can brak.

* Lucy: Gushers show something fake. I don't like it because it pretends it changes your head. They made you by gushers.

Hence, we found that students applied some of the critical ideas, themes, concepts and terms discussed during our sessions. For instance, in the above excerpts, we find Sara challenging the traditional plots and characters found in fairytales; meanwhile, we see evidence of Brett's critical thinking, as he poses alternatives to violent acts seen in films such as Shrek. We also found evidence of "transfer of learning"--that students such as Lucy were able to draw from the session focusing on cereal advertising, and apply this information to toy, sports, and movie advertisements.

Media Production Activity

As noted above, we engaged in a form of media production, creating a mock "talk show" with students. This capstone activity encouraged student-centered media production while allowing us to assess students' knowledge in the topics addressed throughout our program. To begin, we posed broad questions such as "Do you remember the term 'media'?" We then categorized the types of questions by topic; i.e., news and advertising. The students were especially responsive to the questions addressed during the "talk show." Their responses generally reflected their knowledge and critical thinking. For instance, when asked to comment on what they had learned from The Paper Bag Princess, students verbally responded with the following statements:

* Julia: I learned that you shouldn't judge somebody by her, by his or her clothes.

* John: He [the prince] should have been happy because the princess, Elizabeth, saved him but he instead was mad at her because she didn't have the right clothes on.

* Samantha: I learned that princesses can save princes too.

* Ella: It doesn't count what's on the outside. It counts what's on the inside.

These statements suggest a heightened level of critical thinking. Julie, John and Ella, for instance, internalized the messages in Munsch's modern day fairytale, and offered their responses to the story. Meanwhile, Samantha's comment conveyed her understanding of Munsch's alternative storyline. We also asked students to recall our advertising curriculum; as such, we posed broad questions such as "What are the purposes of advertising?" When evaluating the students' responses, we were able to discern a new level of critical thinking pertaining to television commercials. We point to the following verbal statements that were taken from the talk show.

* Alice: They [commercials] make you want to buy it. Sometime even grown-ups can fall for it too.

* Bobby: It's like they try to make you buy stuff. They try to make you buy it so that they can make money.

In evaluating these two comments, we are able to discern the students' understanding of the persuasive intent of commercials. Taking their critical thinking skills a step further, Alice rightfully noted that adults are sometimes deceived by commercials. Moreover, Bobby's comment touches upon the economic underpinnings of advertising, which is arguably an impressive, if not advanced, observation for a second grader. We were also impressed by the second graders' willingness to voice their thoughts pertaining to media violence, as conveyed by the following comments:

* Jenny: Seeing violence on TV makes me feel mad. It makes me wonder, and want to ask why they made it. Because people who, like little kids, might learn that when they grow up and try to do it.

* Jessica: It makes me feel scared. But they're just acting. They don't really hurt people, they just make it look like that.

* Michelle: Well, I think violence makes me feel like, very mad, and I think it's not really right.

Such comments are especially indicative of the second graders' awareness and critical thinking skills. Jenny, for example, conveys her understanding that media messages are "constructed," relays her frustrations with media violence, and acknowledges the possibility of "negative" media effects. Likewise, Jessica's comment reflects her understanding of the construction of media, while Michelle challenges the ethics of media violence. As such, we were pleased that students incorporated concepts and terminology (e.g., violence, consequences, etc.) introduced during the previous weeks.

Conclusion

Reflecting on our project, we are quite enthusiastic about our accomplishments and results. By comparing our original goals to our outcomes, we believe that our media literacy endeavor met and exceeded our expectations. Specifically, our analysis of students' verbal and written comments suggests a marked level of critical thinking, as evident by the students' use of terminology and concepts, and their ability to question media messages and their construction. Working with second graders opened our eyes to the expansive possibilities of media literacy. Of greatest significance, our experience strongly suggests that children as young as seven-years-old can indeed benefit from media literacy education. In fact, we contend that elementary school is an ideal window of opportunity for introducing the concepts of media literacy, especially since children are growing up in an increasingly pervasive and complex media landscape. In closing, we strongly encourage the implementation of media literacy curriculum in primary and secondary schools throughout the United States.

References

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Bergstrom and Paradise are graduate students, and Scharrer is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Communication at the University of Massachusetts-Amherst.