Interpersonal Influences on Students' Academic and Career Decisions: The Impact of Sexual Orientation.

The authors investigated differences in interpersonal influences on career decision making between gay, lesbian, and bisexual (GLB) and heterosexual college students. Contrary to hypotheses, GLB students reported having more career role models than did heterosexual students, and the amount of inspiration received from role models did not differ between the 2 groups. However, GLB students perceived they received less support and guidance from others in their academic and career decision making. As expected, GLB students were more likely to endorse the importance of a career role model's sexual orientation and support of people with their own sexual orientation. Career intervention and research implications are discussed.

The unique concerns of gay, lesbian, and bisexual (GLB) individuals have been identified as a critical area of inquiry in the career development literature (Bieschke & Matthews, 1996; Croteau, 1996; Lonborg & Phillips, 1996). Because of "stereotypes, discrimination, environmental barriers, and other forms of bias that typically impede the development of minority groups" (Herr & Cramer, 1988, p. 154), theorists have suggested that the career decision making and implementation of GLB individuals may be particularly difficult when compared with that of heterosexual individuals. A growing literature, including special issues of The Career Development Quarterly and Journal of Vocational Behavior; has addressed ways in which GLB individuals' career development is affected by sexual identity and orientation issues (e.g., Chung, 1995; Fassinger, 1995, 1996; Mobley & Slaney, 1996; Morrow, Gore, & Campbell, 1996; Pope, 1995; Prince, 1995).

Role Model Influences

One of the issues that has consistently emerged from the literature on GLB career development is the importance of role models who are "out" with respect to a GLB sexual orientation. Research has documented a beneficial impact of role models on various career outcomes in general (Dryler, 1998; Nauta & Kokaly, 2001; Savenye, 1992). According to social learning theory (Bandura, 1977), individuals are likely to seek role models whom they perceive to be similar to themselves because they assume such models' experiences would extend to their lives as well (Gottfredson, 1981). Thus, out GLB role models may be especially important in the career development of GLB individuals because they can demonstrate how to balance private and public aspects of self on the job, they can model confidence with one's self as a GLB individual in a career, and they can challenge stereotypes about appropriate and inappropriate jobs for GLB individuals (Croteau & Thiel, 1993; Hetherington & Orzek, 1989). In addition, observing career ro le models who are out at work may help young adults anticipate reactions to and consequences of public disclosures about their sexual orientation in the workplace (Elliott, 1993; Etringer, Hillerbrand, & Hetherington, 1990; Morgan & Brown, 1991).

Support and Encouragement

Empirical studies indicate, however, that most GLB individuals have not disclosed their sexual identity to their employers and coworkers, often because they fear reprisal, bias, discrimination, and job loss (Fassinger, 1995; Schneider, 1987; Woods, 1993). When they are "closeted" in the workplace, such persons may not serve as career role models for other GLB individuals (Fassinger, 1996). In fact, Fassinger (1996) identified a lack of role models as a central barrier for lesbian women's vocational choices, implementation, and adjustment. Thus, much literature on career counseling interventions with GLB individuals has recommended that career counselors help their clients identify GLB professionals who can serve as role models (Pope, 1995).

Another issue that has been identified as affecting GLB individuals' career development is support and encouragement from important others in their lives (Fassinger, 1996). It is not uncommon for temporary or permanent conflicts with family members and peers to arise when an individual discloses that he or she is gay, lesbian, or bisexual (Savin-Williams, 1998). Because sexual and career identity exploration and formation often occur simultaneously in young adults (Etringer et al., 1990), GLB individuals may "come out" to others during a time that coincides with important career decisions. Any resulting loss of support and encouragement would be expected to have a negative impact on such individuals' career development to the extent that it influences their self-esteem, self-efficacy, and general well-being (Fassinger, 1996; Lent, Brown, & Hackett, 1994; Savin-Williams, 1998).

In addition, some empirical research has suggested a tendency for GLB individuals to have more androgynous interests and less conformity to traditional stereotypes and gender-related expectations than their heterosexual peers (Brooks, 1991; Hetherington & Orzek, 1989; Morrow et al., 1996). Because parents, peers, and educators are less likely to encourage the development of nonconforming behaviors, GLB individuals may experience less support from such sources as they develop vocational identities and make career decisions (Chung, 1995). Conversely, because some GLB communities might value nontraditional roles and behaviors, individuals who conform to traditional gender role expectations may feel less supported and encouraged by their GLB peers (Meyerding, 1990).

Purpose

Despite the theorized importance of career role models and support from others on GLB individuals' career development, we were unable to find empirical efforts to understand the extent to which GLB and heterosexual individuals' experiences differ on these factors. Because verifying uniquenesses in the experiences of GLB clients would have implications for the types of career interventions used with this population, we sought to explore these differences in our research.

First, a lack of career role models has been theoretically identified as a challenge in GLB individuals' career development (on the basis of social learning theory's prediction that individuals will seek role models perceived to be similar to themselves). However, a search of the literature revealed no empirical data documenting that this population does, indeed, have fewer career role models. On the basis of previous research, which suggested that the majority of GLB individuals are "closeted" at work (Fassinger, 1995; Schneider, 1987; Woods, 1993), we hypothesized that GLB students would report having fewer career role models and receiving less influence from role models than would heterosexual students.

When a lack of role models has been identified as a barrier to GLB individuals' career development, the assumption has often been that heterosexual role models do not serve some important functions (e.g., modeling consequences of and ways of coping with being a minority at work) that GLB role models may provide. However, we found no empirical data verifying that GLB individuals recognize the importance of having a GLB career role model (or a role model who is a member of some other oppressed group and, thus, might serve similar functions) and seek those individuals out for learning opportunities. Thus, a second purpose of our study was to investigate whether there are differences in the importance with which GLB and heterosexual individuals rate various potential career role model characteristics. We hypothesized that GLB individuals would express more value than would heterosexual individuals in having career role models who are members of oppressed groups and who are supportive of members of oppressed grou ps.

Finally, we located no research that investigated the possibility that GLB individuals experience less support and encouragement in career decision making than do heterosexual individuals (e.g., Fassinger, 1996). Consistent with findings that important career decisions often coincide with conflicts that may arise from "coming out" to family and friends, we hypothesized that GLB individuals would report experiencing less support and encouragement when making academic and career decisions.

Method

Participants

Participants were 131 students attending a large midwestern university, of whom 109 (83%) were women and 22 (17%) were men. One hundred fourteen (87%) students were Caucasian, 12 (9%) were African American, 3 (2%) were of Asian descent, and 2 (2%) identified with some other racial--ethnic group. There were 14 (11%) freshmen, 25 (19%) sophomores, 43 (33%) juniors, and 49 (37%) seniors. Self-reports indicated that 70 (53%) students were heterosexual, 31 (24%) lesbian, 14 (11%) gay, and 16 (12%) bisexual. Chi-square analyses did not reveal significant race--ethnicity (using collapsed race--ethnicity categories of "Caucasian" versus "Other" to meet minimum expected cell size frequencies) by sexual orientation or class rank by sexual orientation differences.

The majority (58%) of the participants were drawn from the psychology participant pool at the students' university, and they received extra course credit in psychology courses for their participation. However, to ensure a sufficient GLB sample, the researchers also solicited participation from students attending a People Realizing Individuality and Diversity through Education (PRIDE) meeting at the same university. PRIDE is a registered student organization devoted to promoting and understanding GLB issues. These students (42% of our sample) were not compensated in any way for their participation.

Measures

Students completed a questionnaire consisting of demographic variables (gender, race--ethnicity, year in school) and the following measures.

Number of career role models. A single item asked students to indicate (open-ended format) the number of career role models they had. We did not limit students' responses in any way, therefore, the number they provided may have included role models known to them personally as well as famous persons known only through the media.

Desired characteristics of career role models. We found no existing measure to assess the importance of role model characteristics to respondents, so we developed items for this study. We asked participants to rate the degree to which each of 10 characteristics of career role models (listed in Table 1) was important to them, using a 5-point Likert-type scale (1 = not important, 5= very important). On the basis of social learning theory's (Bandura, 1977) prediction that individuals seek role models who are perceived as similar to them, we attempted to identify dimensions (demographic characteristics and attitudes) on which respondents might make assumptions about how similar a potential role model was to them. In addition, we based the content of some items on findings by Nauta and Kokaly (2001) that students often select role models with whom they feel safe or comfortable talking and whom they perceive as having successful careers. These items were designed to assess a variety of possible role model characte ristics rather than a homogeneous construct; thus, we conducted analyses at the item level and did not compute an internal consistency estimate. Because these items had not been tested in previous research, their validity is not known; however, the items do have a high degree of face validity.

Role model influence and support. We used the Influence of Others on Academic and Career Decision Making Scale (IOACDS; Nauta & Kokaly, 2001) to assess participants' perceptions of the amount and types of career role model influence and support from others. This scale uses 5-point Likert-type items (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree) to assess the amount of support/guidance (8 items) and inspiration/modeling (7 items) students perceive from influential others when making academic/career decisions. An example of a support/guidance item is "There is someone I can count on to be there if I need support when I make academic and career choices." An example of an inspiration/modeling item is "In the academic or career path I am pursuing, there is someone I admire." Previous research with various undergraduate student samples has revealed that the IOACDS subscales have good internal consistency ([alpha] coefficients ranging from .87 to .94; Karunanayake, 2000; Nauta & Kokaly, 2001). In our study, coefficien ts alpha for the support/guidance and inspiration/modeling subscales were .85 and .87, respectively. The scale's validity is supported by correlations in expected directions with measures of general social support, occupational information, career indecision, and career certainty and a nonsignificant relationship with a measure of social desirability (Nauta & Kokaly, 2001).

Sexual orientation. We asked participants to report (open-ended format) their sexual orientation. Their responses were coded and collapsed into two categories (heterosexual was coded 1; GLB was coded 2) for analyses because relatively small numbers of each orientation type that was not heterosexual precluded analysis by specific type of orientation.

Procedure

Students from the participant pool signed up to attend small group (approximately 10 students each) data collection sessions, and students who were attending the PRIDE meeting were asked to remain at the study site location of the meeting afterward if they wished to participate in the research study. In both cases, a researcher explained the purpose of the study, obtained written informed consent, and handed Out questionnaires. When the students had completed the documents, a researcher debriefed them and gave students from the participant pool extra credit documentation.

Results

Research Question 1

Our first research question was whether GLB students would report having fewer career role models than would heterosexual students. We used an independent samples t test to examine differences in the number of career role models students reported. Contrary to our hypothesis, GLB students reported having significantly more (M = 6.30, SD = 4.16) career role models than did heterosexual students (M = 4.41, SD = 2.14), t(87) = 3.18, p = .002.

Research Question 2

Our second question was whether GLB and heterosexual students differ in the degree to which they rated the importance of 10 characteristics of career role models. To assess this possibility, we used a 2-group multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) with the 10 role model characteristic items. The overall effect was significant, Wilks's lambda = .77, F(10, 120) = 3.53, p < .001. We then conducted a discriminant function analysis to identify the characteristics that contributed to the overall difference between groups (Borgen & Seling, 1978). An advantage of using this method rather than separate F tests is that it avoids the experiment-wise error encountered in repeated univariate tests by providing for simultaneous examination of the variables (Betz, 1987). Table 1 shows the means, standard deviations, standardized discriminant function coefficients, and canonical variate correlations. The group centroids were -.50 for the heterosexual group and .58 for the GLB group. The three characteristics of role mode ls that contributed most to the difference between the GLB and the heterosexual groups were (a) having the same sexual orientation as the respondent, (b) being supportive of those whose sexual orientation is the same as the respondent's, and (c) having the same gender as the respondent.

Research Question 3

Finally, we wanted to determine whether GLB and heterosexual students differed in the amount of inspiration/modeling from role models and support/guidance from others when making academic or career decisions. To assess this possibility, we conducted two additional independent samples t tests with the IOACDS subscales. The GLB (M = 29.58, SD = 6.72) and heterosexual (M = 28.57, SD = 6.94) groups did not differ significantly on the inspiration/modeling subscale, t(128) = -.84, p = .40. As predicted, however, GLB students scored significantly lower (M = 28.62, SD = 6.11) than heterosexual students (M = 30.71, SD = 3.88) on the support/guidance measure, t(99) = 2.30, p .02.

Discussion

When interpreting the results of this study, it is important to keep in mind that the GLB sample largely comprised individuals who were attending a meeting devoted to understanding and promoting GLB issues. They may identify more strongly with the GLB community and may be at different stages of sexual identity development (e.g., Cass, 1984) than the larger GLB populations on college campuses. Nevertheless, there were some interesting findings in our study. Contrary to our hypotheses, the GLB sample reported having more career role models and not significantly less perceived influence (of inspiration) from such models than the heterosexual sample. Although we do not know the proportion of their career role models who were gay, lesbian, or bisexual, we were encouraged to find that the GLB students in our study were able to identify professionals whom they admire and would like to emulate. Given previous research documenting the beneficial effects of role models on students' career development (Dryler, 1998; Sav enye, 1992), this finding suggested that many GLB students are making use of some valuable resources as they make academic and career decisions. Moreover, GLB students were more likely than the heterosexual sample to report that it is important for career role models to be of their sexual orientation and to support those with their sexual orientation. It seems that many GLB students recognize that similar role models will serve important functions that heterosexual career role models may be unable to serve. Thus, consistent with social learning theory (Bandura, 1977), they may be looking to role models perceived as similar to themselves to challenge stereotypes, help them anticipate the consequences of being out in the workplace, and help them learn how to cope with such consequences (Croteau & Thiel, 1993; Elliott, 1993; Etringer et al., 1990; Hetherington & Orzek, 1989; Morgan & Brown, 1991).

On the other hand, the GLB students in this study reported significantly less support/guidance from others when they made academic and career decisions than did the heterosexual sample. This was consistent with our hypothesis and with previous literature (Fassinger, 1996, Savin-Williams, 1998) identifying a lack of support from others as a barrier in the career development of GLB individuals. We suspect that a large proportion of our GLB sample was fairly well integrated into the GLB community (as evidenced by their attendance at a PRIDE meeting), which likely provides some support and guidance to its members. GLB students who are not connected with large support groups might be particularly at risk for a lack of encouragement and guidance when they make academic and career decisions.

Study Limitations

One of the most significant limitations of this study is the nature of the GLB sample. Participants who were attending a meeting centered around GLB concerns and who willingly volunteered for scientific inquiry are probably different from those who are "closeted" or who choose not to become involved in research. As such, our findings cannot be generalized to GLB students as a whole. Although the GLB students in our sample reported having more career role models than did heterosexual students, this may have been a function of their integration into the GLB community and their efforts to connect with others who share their concerns.

Second, it is obvious that GLB people are not a homogeneous group. Although career theory and research with bisexual individuals has frequently revealed trends similar to those with lesbian and gay individuals (Croteau, 1996), some researchers have cautioned against lumping these groups together when considering them in career development (Elliott, 1993). Our sample sizes did not allow for separate analyses by group, and it will be important to replicate these findings in the future with larger, more diverse GLB samples to understand the unique issues of each group.

Finally, some significant differences that were found regarding the importance of various role model characteristics were on single-item measures, limiting the reliability and possibly validity of the results. Future research would benefit from validated scales designed to assess respondents' perceptions of the importance of career role model characteristics.

Implications

Given the potential biases of our GLB sample, it would be premature for career counseling and guidance professionals to conclude that limited access to career role models is not a barrier to GLB students' development as has been theorized. However, for students who identify with PRIDE or similar organizations devoted to GLB issues, our findings suggest that there may be no greater need for career role model interventions than there is with heterosexual career clients. Our findings indicate that GLB students may especially value GLB role models and role models who are supportive of GLB orientations. If access to such models is limited, counselors and guidance professionals might recommend the Gayyellow Pages (Green, 1993) as a resource that would help students connect with GLB-affirmative associations and businesses. In addition, externships or placements in businesses owned or operated by members of the GLB community may help connect them with potential role models (Hetherington, Hillerbrand, & Etringer, 1989 ). Finally, career professionals might operate at the systems or societal level by encouraging those GLB professionals who do choose to be out in the workplace to take an active and visible role in mentoring and modeling given their potential importance to GLB students.

It is interesting that the GLB students in our sample seemed to be able to identify career role models, many of whom may have been famous and not known personally by the students. However, they seemed to have more difficulties than heterosexual students in getting support and guidance from those directly involved in their lives. Career interventions designed to provide emotional support may be especially important with this population, and it may also be prudent to consider including family members, peers, and partners as part of the career counseling process with GLB individuals. Even some family members and peers who are not yet willing to support a client's sexual orientation and identity may be able to provide guidance and support in the realm of career development if they are brought into the process of career counseling. This notion is consistent with an increasing awareness that effective career counseling and guidance takes into consideration the complexities of a client's whole life when exploring ca reer issues (Lonborg & Phillips, 1996). Hetherington et al. (1989) suggested that assisting with career development is one of the most constructive ways that counselors can assist GLB clients in improving their quality of life, and our findings suggest that it may be especially important to focus on emotional support and guidance when doing so.

Although our results suggest that GLB individuals value career role models who are GLB or GLB-supportive, we do not know whether the career role models they choose actually have these characteristics. It would be useful for future research to examine the actual characteristics of GLB students' role models to determine the extent to which these values result in actual choices of role models who are GLB or GLB-supportive.

Our finding that GLB students perceived less academic and career support, guidance, or both from others is consistent with literature describing a common reduction in support from family and peers when one discloses a GLB sexual orientation (Savin-Williams, 1998). Our finding also supports literature that documents a tendency for parents to offer less support for androgynous or nonconforming interests sometimes expressed by those with a GLB identity (Chung, 1995). However, our results do not allow us to determine whether it is family--peer conflicts, nonconforming interests and behaviors, or both, that are the bases of GLB students' perceptions of less academic and career support. Longitudinal research is needed to track perceptions of support and guidance from family and peers before and after the coming out process.

Margaret M. Nauta is an assistant professor, and Amy M. Saucier and Leigh E. Woodard are undergraduate students, all in the Department of Psychology at Illinois State University, Normal. The authors thank Jeffrey H. Kahn for his assistance with data analysis and for reviewing a previous draft of this article.

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TABLE 1

Means and Standard Deviations for Role Model Characteristics and
Results of Discriminant Function Analysis Predicting Sexual Orientation
Status

                             GLB                  Heterosexual
                            Group                    Group
Role Model
Characteristic             M     SD                   M    SD

Someone whose
 race/ethnicity is
 the same as mine       1.89   1.16                1.87  1.03
Someone whose
 gender is the
 same as mine           2.80   1.38                2.24  1.32
Someone whose
 sexual orientation
 is the same as
 mine                   2.89   1.44                2.20  1.31
Someone who is a
 minority               1.97   1.18                1.63  0.97
Someone I feel
 comfortable
 talking to             4.48   1.03                4.34  0.99
Someone
 supportive of
 people my
 gender                 4.15   1.06                4.29  0.98
Someone
 supportive of
 people of my
 race/ethnicity         3.80   1.39                4.09  1.10
Someone
 supportive of
 people with my
 sexual orientation     4.34   1.01                3.69  1.31
Someone I feel
 safe discussing
 personal issues
 with                   4.57   0.87                4.37  0.98
Someone with a
 successful
 career                 3.23   1.18                3.05  1.26



Role Model
Characteristic       SDFC      Wilks's [LAMBDA]   CVC

Someone whose
 race/ethnicity is
 the same as mine    -.47             1.00        .01
Someone whose
 gender is the
 same as mine         .39              .96 (*)    .39
Someone whose
 sexual orientation
 is the same as
 mine                 .40              .94 (**)   .46
Someone who is a
 minority             .30              .98        .29
Someone I feel
 comfortable
 talking to           .32             1.00        .12
Someone
 supportive of
 people my
 gender              -.22             1.00       -.13
Someone
 supportive of
 people of my
 race/ethnicity      -.51              .99       -.21
Someone
 supportive of
 people with my
 sexual orientation   .77              .93 (**)   .52
Someone I feel
 safe discussing
 personal issues
 with                -.07              .99        .20
Someone with a
 successful
 career              -.19              .99       -.14

Note. N = 131. Ratings are based on a 5-point scale (1 = not important,
5 = very important). GLB = gay, lesbian, and bisexual; SDFC =
standardized discriminant function coeficient; CVC = canonical variate
correlation. The GLB group was coded 2, and the hetreosexual group was
coded 1.

(*)p < .05.

(**)p < .01.