Internship reflections on critical incidents.

Abstract

Emerging research on instructional leadership must address the thinking that underlies the exercise of leadership, not simply describe discrete behaviors of effective leaders. This article describes the use of critical incident technique to explore intern identified themes in the principal internship. The variety of incidents displays vividly and poignantly the difficult, complicated and chaotic role of the principal and leads to implications for internship supervisors.

Introduction

A new principal's ability to exercise effective leadership is related to the purposeful quality of thought that guides administrative action. Emerging research on instructional leadership must address the thinking that underlies the exercise of leadership, not simply describe discrete behaviors of effective leaders. Reflective inquiry is one of three philosophical orientations guiding the education of school administrators. (Fenwick & Pierce, 2002). In the reflective inquiry orientation, principals become active participants in their learning, and the source of knowledge is in self-reflection and engagement. Principals are asked to learn new skills and concepts and then apply those concepts in real school environments, usually as principal interns. As they apply their new knowledge, they perform reflective reading and writing (Daresh, 2002; Fenwick and Pierce, 2002). This reflective introspection is believed to produce experts who hold more complex goals and attempt to integrate these into a general solution to a problem, versus novices who are unable to see the broad spectrum and set more limited goals, and experts who are more aware of the social contexts associated with problems (Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1986; Berliner, 1986; Leithwood & Stager, 1989).

The principal internship is a critical turning point for potential leaders to practice reflection in the midst of learning the complex job of being a principal. Many researchers have written about the importance of reflecting on field experiences (Allison & Allison, 1993; Kolb, 1984; Wilmore, 2001). However, there is little research on how to distinguish critical experiences in the internship versus insignificant experiences that will not have a strong impact on the future job as principal. Meaningful reflection about those experiences, and information from principal interns themselves about what experiences are important to their learning continuum, is critical feedback for principal program administrators.

Methodology

Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study was to answer the following questions: What do principal interns see as critical incidents in their internship experience? How can reflective inquiry both enhance the learning of the principal intern and inform the administrators in charge of the program about the effectiveness and importance of their field experiences? The questions raised suggest a research design that would allow the investigators to: (a) discover the events and activities that capture the attention and focus of principal interns; (b) compare and contrast the information given by each intern with other interns; (c) identify patterns and themes in the critical incidents; (d) sort the incidents into proposed content categories; and (e) interpret and analyze results. The method chosen for data collection was a modified form of critical incident technique developed by John Flanagan (1954). The critical incident technique (CIT) is a qualitative research method which can produce data on a wide range of human activities. It was developed as a tool for use in industrial psychology (Flanagan, 1954, Stano, 1983) not in references and has since been used to study "what people do" in a variety of professions and fields (Fivars, 1980). CIT represents a "structured yet flexible data collection method for producing a thematic or categorical representation of a given behavior and its components" (Johnson & Fauske, 2000).

Data Collection and Analysis Traditionally, critical incident analysis employs the interview method to obtain "an in-depth analytical description of an intact cultural scene" (Borg & Gall, 1989, p. 387). However, the researchers for this study wanted to allow principal interns to spend more time choosing and then reflecting on the critical incidences that were influencing their leadership growth. Interns were therefore instructed to identify a critical incident as a case study for their internship seminar. Case studies were then coded inductively. The patterns and themes which emerged from the coding procedure led to the conclusions in this study.

Results

The 38 critical incidents described by the principal interns were arrayed into five categories: 1) Leadership and Culture--12; 2) Leadership and Change--11; 3) Leadership and Supervision--7; 4) Leadership and Special Populations--6; and 5) Leadership and Resources--2.

Leadership and School Culture Of the 38 critical incidents identified by principal interns, 12 dealt with the impact of cultural issues. Eight of the incidents involved specific cultural struggles within the school context. Two involved the larger community context and two involved parental concerns which had an impact on culture. School culture was seen as an underlying framework which served as a compass setting to steer people in a common direction, and was a constant theme in critical incidences. Many interns wrote about the cultural implications of high stakes testing that permeated their internal school environment. One said,

   When we, educators, seek to shape the future of tomorrow we seem to
   be caught in a whirl wind of assessment after assessment. The
   quantity world is what we live and breathe regardless of our core
   values and beliefs on quality.

Sometimes cultural issues within a school involved the fit with a new staff member or new principal. One intern shared the following situation in his critical incident,

   Isolation, turmoil, and a lack of challenge have taken precedence
   over the mission that was once a central topic of conversation. Mr.
   Rose must develop a plan to help the school recover lost ground. He
   must also support the new 6th grade teacher as she becomes
   established in the school.

Some interns realized through their experiences that a positive school culture takes hard work and a commitment to developing relationships.

   In returning to the traits effective principals possess, the one
   that may perhaps be the most important in this situation is the
   ability to foster healthy human relationships. As a leader of the
   school, I need to not only be aware of the different perspectives
   each contributor makes, but also develop a relationship that allows
   me to help bridge the gaps that might occur ... My job is to help
   refocus our efforts on the problem at hand and not place blame on
   the people dealing with each side of the debate.

Still other incidents dealt with the school culture and parents. An intern asked,

   How do we deal with a difficult parent? This is an age old question.
   I do know there are many steps a teacher and administrator must
   take ... If it not handled well, the outcome can be destructive.
   Disagreement between the school and parents seems to occur more
   often as a parent becomes aware of the child's unique needs and
   places pressure on the staff. Sitting back and saying nothing or
   reacting negatively are two responses that rarely lead to a positive
   solution.

Other interns struggled with connecting schools and the broader culture of the community. One intern wrote about a possible school closing and the effects it was having on the school community,

   Madison's meeting was well attended by parents, but no one from the
   school board attended. Many parents left in disgust. The school
   community was furious ... What can Ms. Jones and the school's
   administrative team do to improve school morale and keep the culture
   positive until then?

Leadership and Change Eleven of the 38 critical incidents dealt specifically with the impact of change, although almost all had a common thread of change throughout. One of the major themes that emerged from the critical incidences described by principal interns was the internal and external impact of change. Internally, interns were faced with their own changing roles from teachers to principals. One intern asked critical leadership questions as she reflected on her own personal growth,

   What is the professional and personal 'cost' of being responsible to
   implement topdown decisions? Can a person from the 'outside' really
   help implement effective change in an hour a week? How can
   meaningful, believable relationships be built within such time
   constraints? Am I really a capable, skillful questioner that can
   help a principal reflect on practice?

Others struggled with the importance of change in a leadership role as it related to others, asking key questions about how to bring about sustainable change in teaching practices to improved student learning.

   The dilemma is that we have teachers who do not support this
   curriculum despite the research to support it and the fact that
   students are actually thinking about mathematics in ways they have
   not had an opportunity to do before. How do we honor the teacher,
   yet move them and their students forward for the benefit of all?

Through their self reflection, interns also commented on the need for faculty and staff commitment to change and their abilities to facilitate that "buy in."

   I have a real concern about our educational processes and meeting
   the needs of all kids ... I think many obstacles can come about when
   we do not empower others. Leaders at time feel threatened when
   listening to the kemels of truth in criticism of them. How do we
   truly work together? What is the answer and will these processes
   expose it?

Leadership and Supervision Seven critical incidents described leadership issues around the supervision of teachers and staff. New teachers were often recruited to positions with little or no support from mentors in the building.

   In this particular scenario, I feel that one of the missing links
   was that of a mentor within the building to guide, support and
   encourage Joe through his first year. Even though Joe had teaching
   experience, I believe that providing him the support he needed
   to establish relationships in which he could dialogue and reflect on
   best practices is key in the success and longevity of a new teacher.

In general, retaining quality teachers within school systems remained a core concern. In this light, mentoring was perhaps the most appropriately perceived way to engage, challenge and retain effective teachers. When mentors were provided, however, they often lacked the necessary training to be effective.

   Disillusionment has taken over. How can I assist Jorge after he has
   hit this wall? He has lost some of his spark and has taken on that
   burden that new teachers carry, pressure from parents, massive
   amounts of paperwork and weekends that blend into the work
   week.

Leadership and Special Populations Six critical incidents dealt with special population needs and the leadership required to address them. According to the U.S. Department of Education over 6 million of our nation's children are enrolled in special education programs (U.S. Department of Education, 2002). With increasing enrollment of students in special education, the role of the principal has drastically changed, particularly in light of identifying and providing required special education services. Several of the critical incidents in this area dealt with the ethical issues surrounding the testing of special education students. One intern said,

   Teachers wanted to do what would benefit them, not necessarily the
   student. Keeping students in special education so they can count
   within a given subpopulation was not an ethical move.

Another intern wrote about students exiting special education programs and the impact of that on school achievement scores.

   A discussion had started during one of our staff development days
   about the students that we had exited that year. Of those twelve
   students, ten had scored proficient on the CSAP. The question that
   followed was no surprise. Should we have exited those students? If
   not, would we have made AYP? Conversations continued about keeping
   students in special education in a consultative manner so it would
   help our subpopulation scores ... The conversation turned at that
   point to one of slight anger. Are we being punished because we work
   hard at helping these students join their peers outside of special
   education?

Incidents not only described special education situations, but also dealt with other special populations in the school such as second language learners and other special need populations. As one intern reported,

   If we can increase the achievement of the English Language Learners
   than the schools' rating as a whole will go up. The ELA Cognitive
   Coaches this year need to train content area teachers in order to
   help close this achievement gap.

Leadership and Resources Only two case studies out of 38 focused on resources. The low numbers of principal interns choosing a resource critical incident for their case study reflects how the principal's roles and responsibilities have changed over time. Traditional management theory of the principalship focused on the organizing role, "bringing together the necessary human, financial, and physical resources to accomplish goals efficiently" (Sergiovanni, 2006, p. 24). One intern who focused his case study on a textbook check-out process for high school realized that the resources were only the first layer of the problem:

   Essentially, the challenge of textbook check-in and check-out was
   not about textbooks at all. It really came down to the fact that
   there was no communication about the how the process would work,
   solid preparations were not made, and people were forced to perform
   duties that they were neither prepared for, had the time for, nor
   provided with the resources needed to complete the task. The result
   was confusion, frustration, and finger pointing.

This intern recognized that he did not have a neat, linear problem to solve about textbooks. It was rather a messy situation, and he needed to wade in and increase understanding and communication with a group of frustrated people. Through reflection and deep analysis of the problem, the intern saw the whole overall context rather than just a narrow view, and was able to begin work on an effective solution.

Conclusions

The first purpose of this study was to examine what principal interns themselves see as critical incidents in their internship experience. The case study assignment was designed to allow the interns freedom to choose an incident that provided them with the greatest perspective into the daily job of being a principal. The result of this inductive freedom was a huge range of various incidents. The variety of incidents, the number of participants in each incident, and the highly emotional level of communication in each incident displayed very vividly and poignantly how difficult, complicated and chaotic the position of principal is.

The next question of the study asked how reflective inquiry can enhance the learning of the intern and also inform administrators in charge of the program about the effectiveness of field experiences. Reflective inquiry was the key step to self-knowledge. The interns laid out their cognitive processes in the case studies. They documented listening to participants. They documented questioning themselves about which leadership theories to follow, and whether they had the leadership abilities to deal with the incident. The reflection part of the case studies helped the interns gain at least awareness of the complex social contexts underlying day to day administrative problems, if not the experienced ability to handle these problems. Because of this internal shift of perspective, preparation programs must "provide newcomers with a structured way to come to grips with their new professional identities as principals" (Daresh, 2002, p. 6) and that may involve more opportunities to identify their own critical incidents in practice.

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Donna D. Cooner, Colorado State University, CO

Cooner, Ed. D., is Associate Professor at Colorado State University and program chair for graduate work in Educational Leadership.