Integrating barriers to Caucasian lesbians' career development and Super's life-span, life-space approach.Researchers and practitioners do not fully understand the nature and extent of actual and perceived barriers in lesbians' career development (S. L. Morrow mor·row n. 1. The following day: resolved to set out on the morrow. 2. The time immediately subsequent to a particular event. 3. Archaic The morning. , P. A. Gore, & B. W. Campbell, 1996). In this study, 10 lesbian women, ages 42 to 64 years, were interviewed and asked to identify barriers to career development due to sexual identity. Integration of sexual orientation sexual orientation n. The direction of one's sexual interest toward members of the same, opposite, or both sexes, especially a direction seen to be dictated by physiologic rather than sociologic forces. in D. E. Super's (1990) Life-Span, Life-Space approach is proposed. ********** Super (1990) defined career development as a dynamic, longitudinal lon·gi·tu·di·nal adj. Running in the direction of the long axis of the body or any of its parts. , and developmental process essentially consisting of developing and implementing the self-concept. He developed a collection of theories that focus on the interaction of the person and environment, a process that resulted in the Life-Span, Life-Space approach to career development. Super's (1990) life-span model of career development has five stages: Growth, Exploration, Establishment, Maintenance, and Disengagement disengagement /dis·en·gage·ment/ (dis?en-gaj´ment) emergence of the fetus from the vaginal canal. dis·en·gage·ment n. . Super theorized that a person journeys through developing interests, skills, and values; exploring the world of work and trying tentative choices; developing greater commitment to a choice; adapting to changes in the world of work; and moving toward selective participation and retirement. Super (1990) developed the Archway Model because he wanted to more clearly portray por·tray tr.v. por·trayed, por·tray·ing, por·trays 1. To depict or represent pictorially; make a picture of. 2. To depict or describe in words. 3. To represent dramatically, as on the stage. the biological, psychological, and socioeconomic so·ci·o·ec·o·nom·ic adj. Of or involving both social and economic factors. socioeconomic Adjective of or involving economic and social factors Adj. 1. factors in career choice and development. The doorstep of the Archway Model reflects the biographical bi·o·graph·i·cal also bi·o·graph·ic adj. 1. Containing, consisting of, or relating to the facts or events in a person's life. 2. Of or relating to biography as a literary form. and geographical foundations of human development (Super, 1990). The doorstep is then the base for two columns. The societal so·ci·e·tal adj. Of or relating to the structure, organization, or functioning of society. so·ci  e·tal·ly adv.Adj. column reflects variables such as school, family, peer group, economy, and social policy. The psychological column reflects variables such as values, needs, interests, personality, and aptitudes. It is intended that the variables in each column will interact. The arch of the model is representative of one's career, including development stages, role self-concepts, social learning, and decision making. Counselors know it is important to understand people holistically (Arredondo et al., 1996). The Archway Model seeks to address variables in career development, but it does not identify sexual orientation as a potential variable. Many scholars recognize that sexual orientation is an important biographical characteristic in career development (Dunkle, 1996; Fassinger, 1995; Morgan & Brown, 1993; Nauta, Saucier
A Saucier [sosˈje] , & Woodard, 2001). Literature Review In a review of the literature, Croteau (1996) stated that fear of discrimination, particularly if sexual orientation is disclosed or discovered, is a major feature of lesbian, gay, and bisexual bisexual /bi·sex·u·al/ (-sek´shoo-al) 1. pertaining to or characterized by bisexuality. 2. an individual exhibiting bisexuality. 3. pertaining to or characterized by hermaphroditism. 4. persons' work experiences. Chung (2001) noted that work discrimination has significant implications for the vocational behavior, career choice, and psychological well-being psychological well-being Research A nebulous legislative term intended to ensure that certain categories of lab animals, especially primates, don't 'go nuts' as a result of experimental design or conditions of lesbian, gay, and bisexual people This is a list of confirmed famous people who were or are bisexual: people who have had sexual relations with, or have expressed sexual attraction to, both sexes. The historical concept and definition of sexual orientation varies and has changed greatly over time. . No federal law protects lesbian, gay, or bisexual workers from workplace discrimination on the basis of their sexual orientation. Fourteen states and the District of Columbia District of Columbia, federal district (2000 pop. 572,059, a 5.7% decrease in population since the 1990 census), 69 sq mi (179 sq km), on the east bank of the Potomac River, coextensive with the city of Washington, D.C. (the capital of the United States). ban discrimination in the workplace based on sexual orientation (Human Rights Campaign, 2004). Related to discrimination is the broader term heterosexism heterosexism Psychology The belief that heterosexual activities and institutions are better than those with a genderless or homosexual orientation. See Homophobia. , which refers to the normalizing and privileging of heterosexuality het·er·o·sex·u·al·i·ty n. Erotic attraction, predisposition, or sexual behavior between persons of the opposite sex. heterosexuality and calls attention to institutional and interpersonal in·ter·per·son·al adj. 1. Of or relating to the interactions between individuals: interpersonal skills. 2. prejudice and stigma stigma: see pistil. Stigma mark of Cain God’s mark on Cain, a sign of his shame for fratricide. [O. T.: Genesis 4:15] scarlet letter against people who are not heterosexual heterosexual /het·ero·sex·u·al/ (-sek´shoo-al) 1. pertaining to, characteristic of, or directed toward the opposite sex. 2. one who is sexually attracted to persons of the opposite sex. (Waldo, 1999, p. 218). Waldo used structural equation modeling Structural equation modeling (SEM) is a statistical technique for testing and estimating causal relationships using a combination of statistical data and qualitative causal assumptions. to find that, in a sample of 287 gay, lesbian, and bisexual people, the standardized standardized pertaining to data that have been submitted to standardization procedures. standardized morbidity rate see morbidity rate. standardized mortality rate see mortality rate. path coefficients Path coefficients are linear regression weights expressing the causal linkage between statistical variables in the structural equation modeling approach. External links and references
Lesbians, specifically, face unique struggles negotiating a positive self-concept in the face of their devalued de·val·ue also de·val·u·ate v. de·val·ued also de·valu·at·ed, de·val·u·ing also de·val·u·at·ing, de·val·ues also de·val·u·ates v.tr. 1. To lessen or cancel the value of. gender and sexual orientation (Fassinger, 1996). An issue lesbians face is sexual identity development, the process of coming to know and value one's identity as a lesbian (Reynolds & Hanjorgiris, 2000). In a review of the literature on vocational psychology of gay men and lesbian women, Croteau, Anderson, DiStefano, and Kampa-Kokesch (2000) found that sexual identity development can affect career development to varying degrees. In the process of sexual identity development, lesbian women may be absorbed in issues of sexuality, community, and family attitudes, leaving little energy for career development tasks (Dunkle, 1996; Fassinger, 1996). Boatwright, Gilbert, Forrest, and Ketzenberger (1996) found, in their qualitative study, that sexual identity development could "delay, disrupt, or derail de·rail intr. & tr.v. de·railed, de·rail·ing, de·rails 1. To run or cause to run off the rails. 2. " lesbians' career development. Lesbian sexual identity development was similar to a "second adolescence adolescence, time of life from onset of puberty to full adulthood. The exact period of adolescence, which varies from person to person, falls approximately between the ages 12 and 20 and encompasses both physiological and psychological changes. ." Lesbian identity development in later life may affect work role salience sa·li·ence also sa·li·en·cy n. pl. sa·li·en·ces also sa·li·en·cies 1. The quality or condition of being salient. 2. A pronounced feature or part; a highlight. Noun 1. , self-esteem, or achievement of seniority at work (Dunkle, 1996). Because sexual orientation is an invisible identity, another issue affecting lesbian women's career development is disclosure of sexual orientation, also called identity management. Identity management refers to different strategies that lesbians use to control the information others receive about their sexual orientation (Afrank, 2000). In her qualitative dissertation dis·ser·ta·tion n. A lengthy, formal treatise, especially one written by a candidate for the doctoral degree at a university; a thesis. dissertation Noun 1. study of 20 lesbian women who were living in Kansas, Afrank found that the women who revealed sexual orientation to a coworker co·work·er or co-work·er n. One who works with another; a fellow worker. did so to feel closer to the other person. Women who concealed con·ceal tr.v. con·cealed, con·ceal·ing, con·ceals To keep from being seen, found, observed, or discovered; hide. See Synonyms at hide1. orientation did so because they thought there would be greater negative consequences to coming out than positive consequences and because of prejudice and discrimination. Nineteen of the 20 participants reported that perceived level of workplace homophobia homophobia Psychology An irrationally negative attitude toward those with homosexual orientation, or toward becoming homosexual. See Closet, Gay-bashing, Heterosexism. Cf Gay, Homosexual, Phobia. influenced their identity management. Identity management has also been investigated in relationship to work attitudes. In a sample of 900 people, Day and Schoenrade (1997) compared lesbian and gay workers with heterosexual workers. More closeted clos·et·ed adj. Being In a state of secrecy or cautious privacy. workers versus more open gay and lesbian workers did not differ in amount of job stress, although closeted gay persons had significantly higher job stress than heterosexuals. More open workers versus closeted workers had higher levels of affective affective /af·fec·tive/ (ah-fek´tiv) pertaining to affect. af·fec·tive adj. 1. Concerned with or arousing feelings or emotions; emotional. 2. commitment, higher job satisfaction, higher perceived top management, lower role ambiguity, lower role conflict, and lower conflict between work and home. More closeted workers had slightly more conflict between work and home and lower job satisfaction than more open workers. Gender and type of organization were not associated with any dependent variables. Purpose of the Study This study investigated lesbians' sexual orientation barriers to career development within the context of Supers' (1990) life-span, life-space theories. Specifically, the following research question was examined: What career development barriers related to sexual orientation do lesbians report when looking back at the course of their career development? Method Participants The participants were 10 Caucasian, self-identified lesbian women, ages 42 to 64 years (mean age, 51 years), from a moderate-sized southeastern city. I advertised for lesbian women over age 40 to explore barriers across their life span. Participants' educational attainment Educational attainment is a term commonly used by statisticans to refer to the highest degree of education an individual has completed.[1] The US Census Bureau Glossary defines educational attainment as "the highest level of education completed in terms of the was skewed skewed curve of a usually unimodal distribution with one tail drawn out more than the other and the median will lie above or below the mean. skewed Epidemiology adjective Referring to an asymmetrical distribution of a population or of data toward higher education higher education Study beyond the level of secondary education. Institutions of higher education include not only colleges and universities but also professional schools in such fields as law, theology, medicine, business, music, and art. levels: some college (n = 1), associate's degree as·so·ci·ate's degree n. An academic degree conferred by a two-year college after the prescribed course of study has been successfully completed. (n = 1), bachelor's degree (n = 3), master's degree master's degree n. An academic degree conferred by a college or university upon those who complete at least one year of prescribed study beyond the bachelor's degree. Noun 1. (n = 3), Ph.D. (n = 1), and J.D. (n = 1). Participants' occupations included university professor, computer graphics artist, registered nurse, lawyer, student, retired accountant, telecommunications specialist, marriage and family therapist, computer support analyst, and engineer/acupuncture specialist. Participants were recruited for the study with the following methods: advertisement in a local newspaper (n = 3), word of mouth through my colleagues (n = 2), word of mouth through another interviewee (n = 2), advertisement in a state gay/lesbian/bisexual newspaper (n = 1), flyer at a university counseling center (n = 1), flyer at a local church affirmative AFFIRMATIVE. Averring a fact to be true; that which is opposed to negative. (q.v.) 2. It is a general rule of evidence that the affirmative of the issue must be proved. Bull. N. P. 298 ; Peake, Ev. 2. 3. of local gay/lesbian/bisexual people (n = 1), and announcement at a gay/lesbian/bisexual/transgender community center (n = 1). Procedure A qualitative design was appropriate because of the exploratory nature of the study, and an interview format was chosen to establish rapport The former name of device management software from Wyse Technology, San Jose, CA (www.wyse.com) that is designed to centrally control up to 100,000+ devices, including Wyse thin clients (see Winterm), Palm, PocketPC and other mobile devices. (Croteau, 1996; Lonborg & Phillips, 1996). I obtained informed consent and conducted all 10 interviews in person. They were audiotaped with participants' permission. One interview was not audiotaped due to a technological failure, although her barriers, which were all written down, were included in the study. Interviews lasted for an average of 1.25 hours and were conducted, per request, in the participant's home (n = 5), at a local restaurant (n = 4), or in my office (n = 1). Interviews covered the following material. Barriers. Participants were asked about barriers to their career development using the question, "Could you please tell me about some of the sexual identity related barriers to your career development? Any stories that you would like to share about the effects of barriers on your career development would be helpful." Barriers were defined as anything that impeded im·pede tr.v. im·ped·ed, im·ped·ing, im·pedes To retard or obstruct the progress of. See Synonyms at hinder1. [Latin imped or slowed participants' career progress or contributed to discomfort in a career-related setting. I wrote down each barrier and verified with participants the accuracy and completeness of the barriers. Barriers and career development stages. For simplicity, this study addressed Super's (1990) career development "maxicycle," while recognizing that career development does not have to be linear. A summary of Super's stages of career development was presented to the participants with the relevant tasks and characteristics associated with each stage. No associated ages were given. Participants were asked to identify which stages (if any) their barriers fell into (participants often placed the same barrier in multiple stages). I wrote down each barrier next to corresponding stages and checked the accuracy of the notes with participants. Independently, three raters with career counseling Noun 1. career counseling - counseling on career opportunities counseling, counselling, guidance, counsel, direction - something that provides direction or advice as to a decision or course of action experience and course work on Super's theories classified 22 barriers by stages (allowing barriers to be classified in more than one stage). For example, "responsibility for level of disclosure" was a barrier that was placed in the first four career stages. Participants placed their barriers in stages wherein where·in adv. In what way; how: Wherein have we sinned? conj. 1. In which location; where: the country wherein those people live. 2. at least one rater rat·er n. 1. One that rates, especially one that establishes a rating. 2. One having an indicated rank or rating. Often used in combination: a third-rater; a first-rater. agreed 48 out of 51 times. I interpreted this to mean that participants' classification of barriers was valid. Data Analyses The data were analyzed an·a·lyze tr.v. an·a·lyzed, an·a·lyz·ing, an·a·lyz·es 1. To examine methodically by separating into parts and studying their interrelations. 2. Chemistry To make a chemical analysis of. 3. based on the method described by Miles and Huberman (1994) involving content analysis. Using the written notes, a graduate student, who was trained in career counseling, and I individually reviewed answers to each question. Second, we used the data to collaboratively develop a list of specific types of career development barriers. Third, we individually coded participants' barriers by specific type. For example, having to decide when and how to tell others about being lesbian was coded as "responsibility for level of disclosure." Intercoder reliability was .92 (amount of agreement/total coding instances). Disagreements were discussed to ensure accurate coding. A third trained student, who was a psychology major, verified that all barriers on the interview tapes were in the written notes and clarified five minor wording differences (e.g., "people" to "all people"). I identified descriptive statements about barriers from the audiotapes. Results Barriers and Career Development Stages Participants reported a wide variety of barriers. Dakota (all participants' names are pseudonyms This article gives a list of pseudonyms, in various categories. Pseudonyms are similar to, but distinct from, secret identities. Artists, sculptors, architects
Growth stage. During the Growth stage of career development, only one participant noticed a barrier related to sexual identity development. She noticed that she restricted her career interests by looking for Looking for In the context of general equities, this describing a buy interest in which a dealer is asked to offer stock, often involving a capital commitment. Antithesis of in touch with. a career with "fewer walls" and greater acceptance of her sexual orientation.
I guess the barrier probably would be because I was seeking a
place where I could find comfort and be whoever I wanted to
be.... The barrier would be restriction of acceptance.
Exploration stage. Two participants felt that career choice was influenced by the possibilities of acceptance in different career fields. One woman, Tracey, was suspended from her graduate program in 1964 because she was a lesbian. The political climate of her department (Education) was such that lesbians were seen as unfit unfit not properly prepared, e.g. physically incapable of performing hard work as in racing, because of lack of training. Said also of food prepared unhygienically. unfit for human consumption for that profession. She felt she was forced to choose another career path. Sarin sarin (zärēn`), volatile liquid used as a nerve gas. It boils at 147°C; but evaporates quickly at room temperature; its vapor is colorless and odorless. , a 45-year-old computer support analyst, chose to stay away from a career as a lawyer and move toward a career in counseling because she thought people in counseling would be more accepting of her sexual identity.
[P]icking the counseling field was kind of maybe
subconsciously ... one way of avoiding some barriers. Even if
people didn't like it [her sexual orientation], they had to kinda
act like they did because they're counselors. So I think that that
was one way that I was trying to minimize those barriers--in my
own mind, not necessarily that it did.
Sarin also went to law school knowing that she would have to be very careful about disclosing her sexual orientation. Being lesbian was not the major reason she left, but she said the "gay thing was tied up in the law school thing. It contributed because I didn't want to have to deal with the hassles." Deciding whether and when to tell people about sexual orientation, maintenance of public-private (dual) identities, "old boy" systems, lack of support from peers, not being able to be open about relationships at work-related social occasions, a hostile work environment A hostile work environment exists when an employee experiences workplace harassment and fears going to work because of the offensive, intimidating, or oppressive atmosphere generated by the harasser. , harassment Ask a Lawyer Question Country: United States of America State: Nevada I recently moved to nev.from abut have been going back to ca. every 2 to 3 weeks for med. from coworkers, harassment from employer, retention discrimination, and low self-esteem caused by the sexual orientation stigma were also cited as barriers in this stage. However, 7 of the 10 participants reported no barriers during the Exploration stage. Establishment stage. During the Establishment stage, another woman, Kelly, a 55-year-old lawyer, left her graduate program (higher education and student personnel administration) in 1972 with all but her dissertation finished. She said her department, especially her major professor, was homophobic ho·mo·pho·bi·a n. 1. Fear of or contempt for lesbians and gay men. 2. Behavior based on such a feeling. [homo(sexual) + -phobia. and "I decided I wouldn't be able to deal with the stress of being in an educational and career setting worrying all the time about being found out. So, I decided to leave education as a career." Her work to advance in student personnel was now "derailed." She started over as a lawyer. "One of the reasons I picked being a lawyer--I really wanted to be a lawyer--but one of the reasons was that I figured if I had trouble, trouble being employed for reasons of sexual orientation, that I could always be in private practice." Kelly also chose to practice in a location that was far from family so that if she was later involved in litigation An action brought in court to enforce a particular right. The act or process of bringing a lawsuit in and of itself; a judicial contest; any dispute. When a person begins a civil lawsuit, the person enters into a process called litigation. with the Bar about being a lesbian lawyer, her family would never hear about it. Participants reported that "old boy systems" were not open to them as women and especially not open to them as lesbians. Participants also reported feeling that they had no job security because their sexual orientation could be the source of termination at anytime. Kelly worked for an elected official and said,
See, the thing about working for an elected official is, if for
some reason they're embarrassed by you or something, you're gone.
So ... it [working for an elected official] was ... fearful. At
least for the first few years I was there, I just kinda walked
around knowing, feeling, really not knowing, that everyday could
be my last day because I worked for an elected official.
Danielle, age 56, described working for a state agency whose policy was that the "first offense of homosexuality" would result in immediate dismissal.
They deliberately tried to fire me and prove that I was a
homosexual.... It did make things very difficult for me to go to
work, but I had to go to work and sit at the switchboard everyday
and smile and pretend everything was fine.... I was angry ... and
I was also having to deal with innuendoes and hearings. I felt
attacked. I guess I felt devalued, even more than normal, very
devalued at that point.
Six participants felt a need to be careful not to disclose their sexual orientation because of nonacceptance in the work environment. Participants had to repeatedly determine their level of disclosure depending on the situation and the people. Participants' choices included self-disclosure versus non-self-disclosure, confronting others' homophobia versus silence, and maintaining public and private identities. Jen, age 50, a computer graphics artist, said the behaviors involved in maintaining a heterosexual image felt like, "living in a box," and "living a lie." She did not feel comfortable, she could not express herself, and she always had to think before speaking. She felt she was restricting herself. She later went "outside of the box" by coming out at work and reported that "the barriers are still there. It's just an avoidance of the barriers now.... But what I do is I work for a company that accepts me." Participants identified other barriers, including fear of others' attitudes and guilt and stigma due to sexual orientation. Tracey, a 55-year-old nurse, reported, "I'm a terrible person. There's no way I will ever be an acceptable person in society. My very best behavior will never be sufficient to overcome my state of being." Three participants were reluctant to develop personal relationships, keeping others at a distance so that they would not find out about their sexual orientation. Tracey changed jobs or careers every 2 to 3 years so that no one would find out that she was a lesbian. Conflict with coworkers about issues of lesbian sexual orientation was another barrier to career development. Sarin said,
If I don't come right out and say, "I'm a lesbian, I'm queer, I'm
gay," then they can question, you know, or make assumptions or
whatever, and it's a hassle and I have to say something. And I
have to deal with it no matter what job I'm in.
Sarin also reported confronting one coworker's homophobia and said, "It's trying to walk that line between being confrontational, and educational, and standing up for myself and all the other queers out there, and not being a pain in the ass Noun 1. pain in the ass - something or someone that causes trouble; a source of unhappiness; "washing dishes was a nuisance before we got a dish washer"; "a bit of a bother"; "he's not a friend, he's an infliction" ." Maintenance stage. During this stage, participants noted barriers such as an employer making an issue of the participant being lesbian, lack of economic security due to nonacceptance of lesbian sexual orientation, and fear of moving up the job ladder because increased scrutiny might lead to identification of one's sexual orientation, therefore challenging one's position. From Establishment and into Maintenance, increased scrutiny was a concern. Kelly did not apply to be a judge for a long time. She stated, "There was that constant fear that someone would try to use it [lesbian sexual orientation] against me and humiliate me." She believed that
it was dangerous to get too high in terms of promotion because
there'd be more people who'd have reason to bring you down, and
being gay was one of the pieces of ammunition that people could
use to bring you down.
Three women believed that working in jobs that attracted attention could increase discrimination. Heidi, a 44-year-old engineer said,
I think, you know, just some of my own internal problems with it
[sexual identity] has probably kept me from going further in some
of my jobs.... It's almost as if I tried not to get promoted. It's
like I would try to get promoted to a certain level, and then it's
like once I got up to more of a management level where I could
even go further (you know, it's not like I've quit a bunch of
jobs), but, I mean, I was feeling like, okay, it's time for me to
move on. I guess I'm getting more and more involved with this
particular job, and I don't feel comfortable being who I am being
in this job. So I'd switch to another job and kinda start over....
Then I don't feel quite as exposed as I would at the more upper
level.
She said this situation contrasted with a later work experience in a more accepting environment, where she was open about her sexual identity. Also during the Maintenance stage, 8 participants felt uncomfortable disclosing their sexual identity in the workplace. Six women reported difficult work-social situations related to being lesbian in a heterosexist environment. Tracey reported that, during the Maintenance stage, she switched jobs often in order to avoid being outed. She had fewer work friends, less job knowledge, less vacation, fewer benefits, less savings, and later retirement. Disengagement stage. Only 3 of the participants reported barriers related to the Disengagement stage of career development. They reported being concerned with when and whether to tell people of their sexual orientation, being unable to share benefits with partners, and indirect discrimination related to sexual orientation. Michelle, a 51-year-old telecommunications specialist, said she wondered about possible barriers when she and her partner retired and applied for loans to start her own business. She also wondered if she would face discrimination when working part-time in the elder care field. Tracey, after switching jobs frequently her whole life, said she had fewer benefits and fewer people who could take care of her when she was sick because she had isolated herself from people. She noted that if there were no barriers, there would be more people with whom to enjoy life. Discussion This study indicated clearly that barriers existed for lesbian women in the workplace. Findings indicated that in every stage of career development, sexual orientation interacted with career development. Certain barriers were closely related to specific career stage tasks and persisted into later stages. For example, finding an accepting work environment affected career exploration, crystallization Crystallization The formation of a solid from a solution, melt, vapor, or a different solid phase. Crystallization from solution is an important industrial operation because of the large number of materials marketed as crystalline particles. , establishment, and advancement. Thus, the results of this study indicated that there is a need for counselors to integrate sexual orientation as a biographical variable in Super's (1990) Archway Model and the life-span, life-space perspective. Areas of intersection of lesbian sexual orientation and career development started with lesbians seeing careers through the lens of the question, "In what career can I be myself?" Fassinger (1995) suggested that assessing opportunity structures from the perspective of one's sexual orientation and possibilities of acceptance leads to lesbians' limited perceived career choices. Dunkle (1996) further noted that research has not suggested that lesbian identity formation influences development of basic interests, although he speculated that sexual orientation might influence interest in certain careers. In this study, one person perceived the law profession as involving too many hassles. Another saw it as discriminatory dis·crim·i·na·to·ry adj. 1. Marked by or showing prejudice; biased. 2. Making distinctions. dis·crim but okay if she established a private practice. This person-environment interaction underscored the need for sexual orientation to be a part of Super's Archway Model as an influential biographical variable in career development. Participants reported that the greatest number of barriers was experienced in the Establishment and Maintenance stages of career development, which was where most of the participants were in their career development. Concerns about discrimination and responsibility for identity management were examples of sexual orientation-related career barriers. Participants' reports that they were walking a line, or living a lie, or deciding which jokes to confront were consistent with previous research highlighting identity management in the workplace (Boatwright et al., 1996; Fassinger, 1995, 1996). Surprisingly, Driscoll et al. (1996) found that disclosure of lesbian identity did not have a significant influence on occupational stress, coping, or work satisfaction. Perhaps responsibility for level of disclosure was a barrier because the individual was required to use her emotional resources to anticipate other persons' reactions to the disclosure. This complicates one mechanism that Super (1990) argued is necessary for career development, that is, implementing the self-concept. For some participants in this study, being out was helpful, and sometimes it led to discrimination. For others, the risk of coming out was too great. In both cases, it was a career-related concern. Another occasion when sexual orientation interacts with career development is avoiding jobs that attract attention to oneself in order to limit discrimination. Such behaviors limit career development by blocking the implementation of the self-concept. Participants also sometimes avoided personal relationships to avoid discrimination. Dunkle (1996) stated that lack of personal relationships may be related to stressors in sexual identity development. Avoiding discrimination is a significant concern and stressor; another stressor is internalized homophobia. Three of the participants reported barriers during the Disengagement stage of career development. Some reasons for this may be that lesbians have fewer stable support systems than heterosexuals do to form a financially binding union, engage in retirement planning Retirement financial planning refers to a collection of systems, methods, and processes which, in their aggregate, support a family unit's (client's) desire to achieve a state of financial independence, such that the need to be gainfully employed is optional. , and to receive partner benefits. It may also be that concerns in their current stage of career development overshadowed other, more distant concerns. Career counselors need to discuss with lesbian clients how their sexual orientation interacts with career development. At the Growth and Exploration stages, counselors should ask the client how her sexual orientation affects her career exploration and view of self. How will identity management look in the workplace? Counselors should let the client know that it is normal for sexual orientation to interact with career development. At the Establishment and Maintenance stages, the client should be asked, How does heterosexism in the workplace affect job satisfaction or commitment? What kind of discrimination has she felt and how has that discrimination influenced advancement or type of identity management strategy? What is the client doing to prepare for sharing benefits with a partner? Limitations The major limitation of this study was the lack of generalizability to other samples of lesbian women. A small sample of Caucasian lesbians, ages 42 to 64 years, who live in the same city and self-identify as lesbian is not representative of the lesbian population, which is a part of many cultures. Possible researcher bias in coding and the retrospective nature of the study are also limitations. Conclusions Although Dunkle (1996) and other scholars (Fassinger, 1996; Mobley & Slaney, 1996; Morgan & Brown, 1993) have made attempts to unite career development theories with the life experiences of lesbians, there still needs to be empirical research Noun 1. empirical research - an empirical search for knowledge inquiry, research, enquiry - a search for knowledge; "their pottery deserves more research than it has received" that brings together career development theory, sexual identity development theory, and lesbian life experiences. How do sexual identity development phases relate to career development stages? What coping strategies The German Freudian psychoanalyst Karen Horney defined four so-called coping strategies to define interpersonal relations, one describing psychologically healthy individuals, the others describing neurotic states. do lesbians use in the workplace? Barriers in the lives of older lesbians have received very little attention in the literature, and further research is needed to address the special concerns of this population. Super's (1990) constructs of work salience, career adaptability a·dapt·a·ble adj. Capable of adapting or of being adapted. a·dapt  a·bil , and life roles could
be used to further understand the career development of gay, lesbian,
and bisexual persons Noun 1. bisexual person - a person who is sexually attracted to both sexesbisexual sensualist - a person who enjoys sensuality androgyne, epicene, epicene person, gynandromorph, hermaphrodite, intersex - one having both male and female sexual . Finally, to inspire further research and better practice, there must be education on the interaction of career development and sexual orientation. References Afrank, J. S. (2000). Lesbian identity management in the workplace (Doctoral disseration, Wichita State University Wichita State University (WSU) is an American state-supported university located in the city of Wichita, Kansas. WSU is one of six state universities governed by the Kansas Board of Regents. The current President is Dr. Donald Beggs. , 2000). Dissertation Abstracts International, 60, 12B. Arredondo, P., Toporek, R., Brown, S. P., Jones, J., Locke, D. C., Sanchez, J., et al. (1996). Operationalization of the multicultural mul·ti·cul·tur·al adj. 1. Of, relating to, or including several cultures. 2. Of or relating to a social or educational theory that encourages interest in many cultures within a society rather than in only a mainstream culture. counseling competencies. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 24, 42-78. Boatwright, K. J., Gilbert, M. S., Forrest, L., & Ketzenberger, K. (1996). Impact of identity development upon career trajectory Trajectory The curve described by a body moving through space, as of a meteor through the atmosphere, a planet around the Sun, a projectile fired from a gun, or a rocket in flight. : Listening to the voices of lesbian women. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 48, 210-228. Chung, Y. B. (2001). Work discrimination and coping strategies: Conceptual frameworks For the concept in aesthetics and art criticism, see . A conceptual framework is used in research to outline possible courses of action or to present a preferred approach to a system analysis project. for counseling lesbian, gay, and bisexual clients. The Career Development Quarterly, 50, 33-44. Croteau, J. M. (1996). Research on the work experience of lesbian, gay, and bisexual people: An integrative review of methodology and findings. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 48, 195-209. Croteau, J. M., Anderson, M. Z., DiStefano, T. M., & Kampa-Kokesch, S. (2000). Lesbian, gay, and bisexual vocational psychology: Reviewing foundations and planning construction. In R. M. Perez, K. A. Debord, & K. J. Bieschke (Eds.), Handbook of counseling and psychotherapy psychotherapy, treatment of mental and emotional disorders using psychological methods. Psychotherapy, thus, does not include physiological interventions, such as drug therapy or electroconvulsive therapy, although it may be used in combination with such methods. with lesbian, gay, and bisexual clients (pp. 383-408). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association The American Psychological Association (APA) is a professional organization representing psychology in the US. Description and history The association has around 150,000 members and an annual budget of around $70m. . Day, N. E., & Schoenrade, P. (1997). Staying in the closet versus coming out: Relationships between communication about sexual orientation and work attitudes. Personnel Review, 29, 346-363. Driscoll, J. M., Kelley, F. A., & Fassinger, R. E. (1996). Lesbian identity and disclosure in the workplace: Relation to occupational stress and satisfaction. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 48, 229-242. Dunkle, J. H. (1996). Toward an integration of gay and lesbian identity development and Super's life-span approach. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 48, 149-159. Fassinger, R. E. (1995). From invisibility to integration: Lesbian identity in the workplace. The Career Development Quarterly, 44, 148-167. Fassinger, R. E. (1996). Notes from the margins: Integrating lesbian experience into the vocational psychology of women. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 48, 160-175. Human Rights Campaign. (2004). Human rights campaign: Discrimination in the workplace. Retrieved April 8, 2002, from http://www.hrc.org/Template.cfm?Section=Search_the_Database & Template=/CustomSource/WorkNetWorkplace PolicySearch.cfm Lonborg, S. D., & Phillips, J. M. (1996). Investigating the career development of gay, lesbian, and bisexual people: Methodological considerations and recommendations. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 48, 176-194. Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks Thousand Oaks, residential city (1990 pop. 104,352), Ventura co., S Calif., in a farm area; inc. 1964. Avocados, citrus, vegetables, strawberries, and nursery products are grown. , CA: Sage. Mobley, M., & Slaney, R. B. (1996). Holland's Theory: Its relevance for lesbian women and gay men. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 48, 125-135. Morgan, K. S., & Brown, L. S. (1993). Lesbian career development, work behavior Work behavior is a term used to describe the behavior one uses in the workplace and is normally more formal than other types of human behavior. This varies from profession to profession, as some are far more casual than others. , and vocational counseling. In D. Brown, L. Brooks, & Associates (Eds.), Career choice and development (pp. 267-286). San Francisco San Francisco (săn frănsĭs`kō), city (1990 pop. 723,959), coextensive with San Francisco co., W Calif., on the tip of a peninsula between the Pacific Ocean and San Francisco Bay, which are connected by the strait known as the Golden : Jossey-Bass. Morrow, S. L., Gore, P. A., & Campbell, B. W. (1996). The application of a sociocognitive framework to the career development of lesbian women and gay men. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 48, 136-148. Nauta, M. M., Saucier, A. M., & Woodard, L. E. (2001). Interpersonal influences on students' academic and career decisions: The impact of sexual orientation. Career Development Quarterly, 49, 352-362. Reynolds, A. L., & Hanjorgiris, W. F. (2000). Coming out: Lesbian, gay, and bisexual identity development. In R. M. Perez, K. A. Debord, & K. J. Bieschke (Eds.), Handbook of counseling and psychotherapy with lesbian, gay, and bisexual clients (pp. 35-55). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Super, D. E. (1990). A life-span, life-space approach to career development. In D. Brown, L. Brooks, & Associates (Eds.), Career choice and development (2nd ed., pp. 197-261). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Waldo, C. R. (1999). Working in a majority context: A structural model of heterosexism as minority stress in the workplace. Journal of Counseling Psychology Counseling psychology as a psychological specialty facilitates personal and interpersonal functioning across the life span with a focus on emotional, social, vocational, educational, health-related, developmental, and organizational concerns. , 46, 218-232. Chloe J. C. House, Counseling Psychology, The Pennsylvania State University Pennsylvania State University, main campus at University Park, State College; land-grant and state supported; coeducational; chartered 1855, opened 1859 as Farmers' High School. . Portions of this paper were presented at the 2000 Annual Conference of National Career Development and at The Association of Women in Psychology 2000 Annual Conference. The author thanks Tracy Von Gunten and Nicole Kushner for their contributions to the study; also, Kathleen Bieschke, Jen Grzegorek, Connie Matthews, Mary McClanahan, Skip Niles, Irene Padavic, Jeeseon Park, Steve Rollin, and James Sampson James Sampson is a Danish singer, of Afro-American descent. James Sampson first gained popularity, when he won the Danish singing competition "Stjerne for en aften" ("Star for a night"). Jr. for their careful revisions of earlier versions of this article. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Chloe J. C. House, Department of Counseling Psychology, 326 CEDAR Building, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802 (e-mail: cjc190@psu.edu). |
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